American Indian Nations from Termination to Restoration, 1953-2006

335 Pages·2010·1.197 MB·English

by  Roberta Ulrich

American Indian Nations
from Termination to
Restoration, 1953–2006

American Indian Nations
from Termination to
1
Restoration, 953–2006
roberta ulrich
university of nebraska press | lincoln and london
© 2010 by the Board of Regents of
the University of Nebraska
All rights reserved
Manufactured in the United States
of America
∞
Library of Congress Cataloging-
in-Publication Data
Ulrich, Roberta.
American Indian nations from
termination to restoration,
1953–2006 / Roberta Ulrich.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical
references and index.
isbn 978-0-8032-3364-5
(cloth: alk. paper)
1. Indians of North America—
Government relations—1934–
2. Indian termination policy.
3. Indians of North America—
Cultural assimilation. I. Title.
e93.u45 2010
323.1197'07309045—dc22
2010011367
Set in Quadraat.
Some images have been masked due to copyright limitations.
This book is dedicated to the late
Alvin M. Josephy Jr. His work
was an inspiration and his help
invaluable.

Contents

List of Illustrations viii
Acknowledgments ix
Prologue: The Experiment xiii
part one. breaking the ties
1. Policy: Kill the Indians 3
2. Menominees: Ambush 21
3. Klamaths: Disaster 45
4. Western Oregon: Invisible 71
5. Alabama-Coushattas of Texas and
Catawbas of South Carolina: Entangled 88
6. Utah Paiute Bands: Helpless 100
7. California: Scattered 111
8. Oklahoma Tribes and Poncas of Nebraska:
Afterthoughts 130
part two. the way back
9. Menominees: Pioneers 143
10. Siletz: Fish 159
11. Oklahoma and Utah: Flood 170
12. Cow Creeks and Grand Rondes: Communities 180
13. Klamaths: Troubles 193
14. Coos and Coquilles: Cooperating 203
15. Alabama-Coushattas and California: Legalities 215
16. Catawbas and Poncas: Last 225
Epilogue: The Results 235
Appendix: Terminated Tribes and Restorations 247
Notes 249
Bibliography 287
Index 295
Illustrations
following page 146
Klamath men’s traditional dancers
Grand Ronde cemetery shed
Grand Ronde governance center
Ponca Agency building
Acknowledgments
I am deeply indebted fi rst of all to those tribal people who shared
their life stories with me, illustrating how termination — and lat-
er restoration — had affected their lives. Their experiences are the
core of this book, and I value the time they gave me and the hon-
esty of their accounts. Even more, I am in awe of their resilience
and courage. So my thanks to Don Arnold, Thomas Ball, George
Barton, Leaford Bearskin, Gordon Bettles, Bensell Breon, Bill Brai-
nard, Ron Brainard, Doris and Bud Chase, Gail Chehak, Edison
Chiloquin, Howard Crombie, Theodore Crume, Michael Darcy,
Taylor R. David, Verna Fowler, Roy Gilkey, Jesse Gonzalez, Don
Ivey, Morris Jimenez, Robert Kentta, Charles E. Kimbol Sr., Russ
Leno, Fred LeRoy, Billie Lewis, Dorene Martineaux, Sue Masten,
Linda Mecum, Edward Metcalf, James Metcalf, David Miller, El-
wood Miller, Jeff Mitchell, Charlie Moses, June Olson, Viola Pack,
Sharon Parrish, Keith Pike, Bill Ray, Michael Rondeau, Cheryl
Seidner, Sue M. Shaffer, Gerald Skelton, Carolyn Slyter, Joe Thom-
as, Leon Tom, Phil (Bill) Tupper, Laurie Voshall, Bob Watson, Don-
ald Whereat, Jackie Whisler, Leona Wilkinson, Nancy Williams,
Bob Younker, and Violet Zimbrick. I also thank former commis-
sioner of Indian Affairs Kenneth Smith and tribal offi cials Llewellyn
Boyd, Carlos Bullock, Helen Christie, Rod Clarke, David Lewis, Kim
Mueller, and Gary Robinette for information and assistance. I have
tried to do them justice.