Urban Pollution Chapter No.: 1 Title Name: ffirs.indd Comp. by: Date: 27 Sep 2018 Time: 08:46:54 PM Stage: WorkFlow: Page Number: i Urban Pollution Science and Management Edited by Susanne M. Charlesworth Coventry University Coventry, United Kingdom Colin A. Booth University of the West of England Bristol, United Kingdom Chapter No.: 1 Title Name: ffirs.indd Comp. by: Date: 27 Sep 2018 Time: 08:46:54 PM Stage: WorkFlow: Page Number: iii This edition first published 2019 © 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/ permissions. The right of Susanne M. Charlesworth and Colin A. 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Classification: LCC TD177 (ebook) | LCC TD177 .U73 2018 (print) | DDC 628.509173/2–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018014793 Cover Design: Wiley Cover Image: © Melinda Nagy/Shutterstock Set in 10/12pt WarnockPro by SPi Global, Chennai, India 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Chapter No.: 1 Title Name: ffirs.indd Comp. by: Date: 27 Sep 2018 Time: 08:46:54 PM Stage: WorkFlow: Page Number: iv For the future: our children (Ruth, Hugh‚ and Thomas; Esmée, Edryd‚ and Efren), and their children (Rónán, Ella‐Rose, Aidan‚ and Douglas), and their children … Chapter No.: 1 Title Name: ffirs.indd Comp. by: Date: 27 Sep 2018 Time: 08:46:54 PM Stage: WorkFlow: Page Number: v vii Contents List of Contributors xvii 1 Insights and Issues into the Impacts of Urban Pollution 1 Colin A. Booth and Susanne M. Charlesworth 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Examples of Urban Pollution 2 1.2.1 Air Pollution in London, United Kingdom 2 1.2.2 Air Pollution in Bhopal, India 3 1.2.3 Water Pollution in London, United Kingdom 3 1.2.4 Water Pollution in Minamata, Japan 4 1.2.5 Soil Pollution in Missouri, United States 4 1.3 Structure of This Book 4 1.4 Conclusions 5 References 5 2 Historical Urban Pollution 7 Ann Power and Annie Worsley 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Historical Pollution Monitoring using Environmental Archives 8 2.3 Ancient Air Pollution 8 2.4 Industrial Revolution 10 2.4.1 Case Study: Chemicals in Merseyside, NW England 11 2.5 Twentieth‐Century Urban Pollution 13 2.5.1 Coal Consumption and the Rise of Urban Smog 13 2.5.2 Case Study: London Smog 1952 13 2.5.3 Post‐1950 Urban Pollution – A Complex Signal 15 2.6 Industrial Emissions 16 2.6.1 Metals 16 2.6.2 Persistent Organic Pollutants 17 2.7 Transport 18 2.7.1 Road Transport 18 2.7.2 Air Transport 20 2.8 Conclusions 20 References 20 viii Contents 3 Evolution of Air Quality Policy and Management in Urban Areas 29 Enda Hayes 3.1 Introduction 29 3.2 Sources of Urban Air Pollution 29 3.3 Health Implications of Urban Air Pollution 30 3.4 Historical Context of Air Quality Policy and Management 30 3.4.1 Towards Modern Air Quality Management in Europe 30 3.4.2 Towards Modern Air Quality Management in the United Kingdom 33 3.5 Future Urban Challenges 34 3.5.1 Current Vehicle Emission Factors 34 3.5.2 Vehicle Fleet Dynamics 35 3.5.3 Human Behaviour 35 3.5.4 Environmental Justice 36 3.6 Conclusions 36 References 36 4 UK and EU Water Policy as an Instrument of Urban Pollution 39 Anne‐Marie McLaughlin, Susanne M. Charlesworth, and Stephen J. Coupe Acronyms used in This Chapter 39 4.1 Introduction 39 4.2 Determining Water Quality 40 4.3 UK Water Policy 41 4.3.1 The EU Water Framework Directive 41 4.3.2 Drinking Water Standards 42 4.3.3 Regulations to Protect Groundwater 43 4.3.4 Road Run‐Off and the Development of Run‐Off Specific Thresholds 45 4.3.5 Heavily Modified Waterbodies and Artificial Waterbodies 45 4.4 Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) 46 4.4.1 Run‐Off Destination 46 4.4.1.1 Discharge into the Ground 46 4.4.1.2 Discharge to a Surface Waterbody 47 4.4.1.3 Discharge to a Surface Water Sewer or Local Highway Drain 47 4.4.1.4 Discharge to a Combined Sewer 47 4.4.1.5 Effective Treatment 47 4.4.1.6 Infiltration into the Ground 48 4.4.1.7 Surface Waterbody 48 4.4.2 Rainwater Harvesting 48 4.5 European Policy 49 4.5.1 The Water Framework Directive 49 4.5.2 Drinking Water 51 4.5.3 Groundwater 51 4.5.4 Treatment of Urban Wastewater 51 4.6 The Future 51 4.6.1 Water Quality and Climate Change 52 4.6.2 Potential Impacts of Brexit: Britain’s Exit from the European Union 53 4.7 Conclusions 53 References 54 Contents ix 5 Soil Quality and Policy 57 J. Webb, Jose L. Rubio, and Michael A. Fullen 5.1 Introduction 57 5.2 Soil Pollutants and Their Sources 57 5.3 Consequences of Urban Soil Pollution 58 5.3.1 Heavy Metals 58 5.3.1.1 Sources 58 5.3.1.2 Characterisation 58 5.3.1.3 Health Risks 58 5.3.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 59 5.3.2.1 Health Risks 59 5.3.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) 59 5.3.3.1 Health Risk 59 5.3.4 Dioxins 60 5.3.4.1 Health Risks 60 5.3.5 Platinum Group Elements 60 5.3.6 Rare Earth Elements 60 5.3.7 Particulate Matter 61 5.4 Soils Legislation 61 5.4.1 The European Strategy for Soil Protection 61 5.4.2 EU Legislation Related to Soil Contamination 62 5.4.3 UK Soils Legislation 64 5.4.3.1 Current UK Soils Legislation 64 5.4.3.2 Planning Policy 65 5.5 Conclusions 65 References 66 6 Ground Gases in Urban Environments – Sources and Solutions 69 Andrew B. Shuttleworth 6.1 Introduction 69 6.1.1 Landfill Gas 69 6.1.2 Mine Workings 70 6.1.3 Minor Sources of Ground Gas 71 6.2 The Biochemistry of Ground Gas Production 71 6.2.1 Landfill Gas 71 6.2.2 Natural Materials Producing Ground Gas 72 6.2.3 Radon 72 6.3 Ground Gas Monitoring and Risk Assessment 73 6.3.1 Desk Top Study 73 6.3.2 Intrusive Investigation 73 6.3.2.1 Monitoring Gas in Wells 74 6.3.2.2 Monitoring Instruments 74 6.3.3 Risk Assessment Process 75 6.3.4 Methane and Carbon Dioxide 75 6.3.4.1 Low‐Rise Housing with Ventilated Underfloor Void (Min 150 mm) 75 6.3.4.2 All Other Developments 75 6.5 Other Approaches 76 x Contents 6.6 Passive Barriers and Subfloor Ventilation 77 6.6.1 The Effect of Development on Ground Gases 77 6.6.2 Primary Receptor Protection – Ventilation Layer 77 6.6.3 Secondary Protection – Low‐Permeability Membranes 79 6.7 Practical Examples of Gas Protection Details 79 6.7.1 Quality Assurance, Verification, and Integrity Testing 82 6.8 Pathway Interception Systems for Receptor Protection and Control of Historic Sources 82 6.9 Examples of Other Techniques and Solutions: Biodegradation of Gaseous Pollutants 86 6.10 Conclusion 87 References 87 7 Insights and Issues of Trace Elements Found in Street and Road Dusts 91 Susanne M. Charlesworth, Eduardo De Miguel, Almudena Ordóñez, and Colin A. Booth 7.1 Introduction 91 7.2 Sources of Street and Road Dusts 92 7.2.1 Characteristics of Atmospheric Diffuse Sources 92 7.2.2 Point Sources of Particulates and Pollutants to Street and Road Dust 93 7.2.2.1 Sources Associated with Traffic 94 7.2.2.2 Domestic Heating, Coal, and Oil Combustion 95 7.2.2.3 Resuspension of Soil and Street Dust Particles 96 7.2.2.4 Other Urban Sources 97 7.3 House Dust 98 7.4 Urban Soil 99 7.5 Urban Geochemical Cycles 99 7.6 Conclusions 100 References 101 8 Bioaccessibility of Trace Elements in Urban Environments 107 Eduardo De Miguel, Almudena Ordóñez, Fernando Barrio‐Parra, Miguel Izquierdo‐Díaz, Rodrigo Álvarez, Juan Mingot, and Susanne M. Charlesworth 8.1 Introduction 107 8.2 Analytical Protocols 108 8.3 Bioaccessibility and Urban Environments 109 8.3.1 Bioaccessibility in Urban Soil 110 8.3.2 Lung Bioaccessibility 112 8.4 Bioaccessibility and Human Health Risk Assessment 113 8.5 Conclusions 113 References 113 9 The Necessity for Urban Wastewater Collection, Treatment, and Disposal 119 Colin A. Booth, David Oloke, Andrew Gooding, and Susanne M. Charlesworth 9.1 Introduction 119 9.2 Wastewater Collection in Developed Countries 120 9.3 Wastewater Treatment and Disposal in Developed Countries 121 9.4 Sludge Treatment and Disposal in Developed Countries 124 9.5 WASH in Developing Countries 125 Contents xi 9.6 Conclusions 127 References 127 10 Living Green Roofs 131 Sara Wilkinson and Fraser Torpy 10.1 Introduction 131 10.2 Increasing Urbanisation: Urban Growth 131 10.3 Increasing Urbanisation: Soil, Water, and Air Pollution 132 10.3.1 Soil Pollution 132 10.3.2 Water Pollution 133 10.3.3 Air Pollution 134 10.4 Urban Heat Islands and Human Health 135 10.5 Green Roof Options 137 10.6 Case Study: University of Technology, Sydney, Food‐Producing Roof and Urban Pollution 139 10.7 Conclusions and Next Steps 140 References 141 11 Light Pollution 147 Fabio Falchi 11.1 Introduction 147 11.2 Environmental and Health Effects of Light Pollution 149 11.3 How to Reduce Light Pollution 151 11.4. The example of the Italian Regional Laws 153 11.5 Conclusions 155 References 156 12 The Role of Forensic Science in the Investigation and Control of Urban Pollution 161 Kenneth Pye 12.1 Introduction 161 12.2 Types of Urban Pollutants 161 12.3 Stages in the Forensic Investigation of Urban Pollution 165 12.4 Methods Used to Identify Sources of Pollutants 165 12.5 Conclusions 168 References 169 13 River Ecology and Urban Pollution 173 Martin Fenn 13.1 Introduction 173 13.2 History of River Ecology Monitoring 174 13.2.1 Macroinvertebrates 175 13.2.2 Macrophytes 180 13.2.3 Diatoms 181 13.2.4 Fish 181 13.3 Success Stories 184 13.3.1 Case Study: Love Your Rivers Telford 184 13.3.2 River Wandle, South West London 184 13.4 Conclusions 185 References 185 xii Contents 14 Urban Meadows on Brownfield Land 187 Lynn Besenyei 14.1 Introduction 187 14.2 Creating Flower‐Rich Meadows 189 14.3 Brownfield Soils for Meadow Creation 192 14.4 Management of Created Meadows 193 14.5 Opportunities for Urban Meadow Creation 195 14.6 Conclusions 196 References 196 15 Urban Pollution and Ecosystem Services 199 Rebecca Wade 15.1 Introduction 199 15.2 Ecosystem Services (ES), the Ecosystem Approach, and Ecosystem Service Valuation 199 15.3 Urban Impacts on ES 201 15.4 ES and Urban Pollution in the UK Legislative Context 202 15.5 Enhancing Urban ES to Mitigate Urban Pollution 203 15.6 Conclusions 206 References 207 16 Greywater Recycling and Reuse 211 Katherine Hyde and Matthew Smith 16.1 Introduction 211 16.2 The Ubiquitous Nature of Pollutants in Wastewater from Baths, Showers, and Handbasins 211 16.3 The Quality of Untreated Greywater and Its Water Resource Value 212 16.4 Greywater Terminologies Used in this Chapter 213 16.5 Pollutants in Untreated Greywater 213 16.6 Standardising Greywater Treatment Systems: Removing and Minimising Pollutant Concentrations 214 16.7 Managing the Environmental Characteristics, Applications, and Urban Uses of Treated Greywater 216 16.8 University of Reading’s 2016 Experimental Irrigation of Sedum using Treated Greywater 217 16.9 Soil Results Evaluated during Irrigation using Greywater Constituents 218 16.10 Applying the Principles of Controlled Waters to Greywater Discharges for Sustaining Green Infrastructure 218 16.11 Concluding Comments and Review 220 Acknowledgements 220 References 220 17 Containment of Pollution from Urban Waste Disposal Sites 223 Isaac I. Akinwumi, Colin A. Booth, Oluwapelumi O. Ojuri, Adebanji S. Ogbiye, and Akinwale O. Coker 17.1 Introduction 223 17.2 Generation of Waste Worldwide 224 17.3 Waste Management Issues 224 17.3.1 Sorting, Collection, Reuse, and Recycling 224

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