Urban pollution : science and management

445 Pages·2019·13.783 MB·English

by  Booth, Colin A., Charlesworth, Susanne M.

Urban Pollution
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Urban Pollution
Science and Management
Edited by
Susanne M. Charlesworth
Coventry University
Coventry, United Kingdom
Colin A. Booth
University of the West of England
Bristol, United Kingdom
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iii
This edition first published 2019
© 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Charlesworth, Susanne M., editor. | Booth, Colin (Colin A.), editor.
Title: Urban pollution : science and management / edited by Susanne
Charlesworth, Colin Booth.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2018. | Includes
bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2018014793 (print) | LCCN 2018028469 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119260462 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119260509 (epub) | ISBN 9781119260486
(cloth)
Subjects: LCSH: Urban pollution.
Classification: LCC TD177 (ebook) | LCC TD177 .U73 2018 (print) | DDC
628.509173/2–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018014793
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © Melinda Nagy/Shutterstock
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For the future: our children (Ruth, Hugh‚ and Thomas; Esmée, Edryd‚ and Efren), and their
children (Rónán, Ella‐Rose, Aidan‚ and Douglas), and their children …
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v
vii
Contents
List of Contributors xvii
1 Insights and Issues into the Impacts of Urban Pollution 1
Colin A. Booth and Susanne M. Charlesworth
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Examples of Urban Pollution 2
1.2.1 Air Pollution in London, United Kingdom 2
1.2.2 Air Pollution in Bhopal, India 3
1.2.3 Water Pollution in London, United Kingdom 3
1.2.4 Water Pollution in Minamata, Japan 4
1.2.5 Soil Pollution in Missouri, United States 4
1.3 Structure of This Book 4
1.4 Conclusions 5
References 5
2 Historical Urban Pollution 7
Ann Power and Annie Worsley
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Historical Pollution Monitoring using Environmental Archives 8
2.3 Ancient Air Pollution 8
2.4 Industrial Revolution 10
2.4.1 Case Study: Chemicals in Merseyside, NW England 11
2.5 Twentieth‐Century Urban Pollution 13
2.5.1 Coal Consumption and the Rise of Urban Smog 13
2.5.2 Case Study: London Smog 1952 13
2.5.3 Post‐1950 Urban Pollution – A Complex Signal 15
2.6 Industrial Emissions 16
2.6.1 Metals 16
2.6.2 Persistent Organic Pollutants 17
2.7 Transport 18
2.7.1 Road Transport 18
2.7.2 Air Transport 20
2.8 Conclusions 20
References 20
viii Contents
3 Evolution of Air Quality Policy and Management in Urban Areas 29
Enda Hayes
3.1 Introduction 29
3.2 Sources of Urban Air Pollution 29
3.3 Health Implications of Urban Air Pollution 30
3.4 Historical Context of Air Quality Policy and Management 30
3.4.1 Towards Modern Air Quality Management in Europe 30
3.4.2 Towards Modern Air Quality Management in the United Kingdom 33
3.5 Future Urban Challenges 34
3.5.1 Current Vehicle Emission Factors 34
3.5.2 Vehicle Fleet Dynamics 35
3.5.3 Human Behaviour 35
3.5.4 Environmental Justice 36
3.6 Conclusions 36
References 36
4 UK and EU Water Policy as an Instrument of Urban Pollution 39
Anne‐Marie McLaughlin, Susanne M. Charlesworth, and Stephen J. Coupe
Acronyms used in This Chapter 39
4.1 Introduction 39
4.2 Determining Water Quality 40
4.3 UK Water Policy 41
4.3.1 The EU Water Framework Directive 41
4.3.2 Drinking Water Standards 42
4.3.3 Regulations to Protect Groundwater 43
4.3.4 Road Run‐Off and the Development of Run‐Off Specific Thresholds 45
4.3.5 Heavily Modified Waterbodies and Artificial Waterbodies 45
4.4 Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) 46
4.4.1 Run‐Off Destination 46
4.4.1.1 Discharge into the Ground 46
4.4.1.2 Discharge to a Surface Waterbody 47
4.4.1.3 Discharge to a Surface Water Sewer or Local Highway Drain 47
4.4.1.4 Discharge to a Combined Sewer 47
4.4.1.5 Effective Treatment 47
4.4.1.6 Infiltration into the Ground 48
4.4.1.7 Surface Waterbody 48
4.4.2 Rainwater Harvesting 48
4.5 European Policy 49
4.5.1 The Water Framework Directive 49
4.5.2 Drinking Water 51
4.5.3 Groundwater 51
4.5.4 Treatment of Urban Wastewater 51
4.6 The Future 51
4.6.1 Water Quality and Climate Change 52
4.6.2 Potential Impacts of Brexit: Britain’s Exit from the European Union 53
4.7 Conclusions 53
References 54
Contents ix
5 Soil Quality and Policy 57
J. Webb, Jose L. Rubio, and Michael A. Fullen
5.1 Introduction 57
5.2 Soil Pollutants and Their Sources 57
5.3 Consequences of Urban Soil Pollution 58
5.3.1 Heavy Metals 58
5.3.1.1 Sources 58
5.3.1.2 Characterisation 58
5.3.1.3 Health Risks 58
5.3.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 59
5.3.2.1 Health Risks 59
5.3.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) 59
5.3.3.1 Health Risk 59
5.3.4 Dioxins 60
5.3.4.1 Health Risks 60
5.3.5 Platinum Group Elements 60
5.3.6 Rare Earth Elements 60
5.3.7 Particulate Matter 61
5.4 Soils Legislation 61
5.4.1 The European Strategy for Soil Protection 61
5.4.2 EU Legislation Related to Soil Contamination 62
5.4.3 UK Soils Legislation 64
5.4.3.1 Current UK Soils Legislation 64
5.4.3.2 Planning Policy 65
5.5 Conclusions 65
References 66
6 Ground Gases in Urban Environments – Sources and Solutions 69
Andrew B. Shuttleworth
6.1 Introduction 69
6.1.1 Landfill Gas 69
6.1.2 Mine Workings 70
6.1.3 Minor Sources of Ground Gas 71
6.2 The Biochemistry of Ground Gas Production 71
6.2.1 Landfill Gas 71
6.2.2 Natural Materials Producing Ground Gas 72
6.2.3 Radon 72
6.3 Ground Gas Monitoring and Risk Assessment 73
6.3.1 Desk Top Study 73
6.3.2 Intrusive Investigation 73
6.3.2.1 Monitoring Gas in Wells 74
6.3.2.2 Monitoring Instruments 74
6.3.3 Risk Assessment Process 75
6.3.4 Methane and Carbon Dioxide 75
6.3.4.1 Low‐Rise Housing with Ventilated Underfloor Void (Min 150 mm) 75
6.3.4.2 All Other Developments 75
6.5 Other Approaches 76
x Contents
6.6 Passive Barriers and Subfloor Ventilation 77
6.6.1 The Effect of Development on Ground Gases 77
6.6.2 Primary Receptor Protection – Ventilation Layer 77
6.6.3 Secondary Protection – Low‐Permeability Membranes 79
6.7 Practical Examples of Gas Protection Details 79
6.7.1 Quality Assurance, Verification, and Integrity Testing 82
6.8 Pathway Interception Systems for Receptor Protection and Control of Historic
Sources 82
6.9 Examples of Other Techniques and Solutions: Biodegradation of Gaseous
Pollutants 86
6.10 Conclusion 87
References 87
7 Insights and Issues of Trace Elements Found in Street and Road Dusts 91
Susanne M. Charlesworth, Eduardo De Miguel, Almudena Ordóñez, and Colin A. Booth
7.1 Introduction 91
7.2 Sources of Street and Road Dusts 92
7.2.1 Characteristics of Atmospheric Diffuse Sources 92
7.2.2 Point Sources of Particulates and Pollutants to Street and Road Dust 93
7.2.2.1 Sources Associated with Traffic 94
7.2.2.2 Domestic Heating, Coal, and Oil Combustion 95
7.2.2.3 Resuspension of Soil and Street Dust Particles 96
7.2.2.4 Other Urban Sources 97
7.3 House Dust 98
7.4 Urban Soil 99
7.5 Urban Geochemical Cycles 99
7.6 Conclusions 100
References 101
8 Bioaccessibility of Trace Elements in Urban Environments 107
Eduardo De Miguel, Almudena Ordóñez, Fernando Barrio‐Parra, Miguel Izquierdo‐Díaz,
Rodrigo Álvarez, Juan Mingot, and Susanne M. Charlesworth
8.1 Introduction 107
8.2 Analytical Protocols 108
8.3 Bioaccessibility and Urban Environments 109
8.3.1 Bioaccessibility in Urban Soil 110
8.3.2 Lung Bioaccessibility 112
8.4 Bioaccessibility and Human Health Risk Assessment 113
8.5 Conclusions 113
References 113
9 The Necessity for Urban Wastewater Collection, Treatment, and Disposal 119
Colin A. Booth, David Oloke, Andrew Gooding, and Susanne M. Charlesworth
9.1 Introduction 119
9.2 Wastewater Collection in Developed Countries 120
9.3 Wastewater Treatment and Disposal in Developed
Countries 121
9.4 Sludge Treatment and Disposal in Developed Countries 124
9.5 WASH in Developing Countries 125
Contents xi
9.6 Conclusions 127
References 127
10 Living Green Roofs 131
Sara Wilkinson and Fraser Torpy
10.1 Introduction 131
10.2 Increasing Urbanisation: Urban Growth 131
10.3 Increasing Urbanisation: Soil, Water, and Air Pollution 132
10.3.1 Soil Pollution 132
10.3.2 Water Pollution 133
10.3.3 Air Pollution 134
10.4 Urban Heat Islands and Human Health 135
10.5 Green Roof Options 137
10.6 Case Study: University of Technology, Sydney, Food‐Producing Roof and Urban
Pollution 139
10.7 Conclusions and Next Steps 140
References 141
11 Light Pollution 147
Fabio Falchi
11.1 Introduction 147
11.2 Environmental and Health Effects of Light Pollution 149
11.3 How to Reduce Light Pollution 151
11.4. The example of the Italian Regional Laws 153
11.5 Conclusions 155
References 156
12 The Role of Forensic Science in the Investigation and Control of Urban Pollution 161
Kenneth Pye
12.1 Introduction 161
12.2 Types of Urban Pollutants 161
12.3 Stages in the Forensic Investigation of Urban Pollution 165
12.4 Methods Used to Identify Sources of Pollutants 165
12.5 Conclusions 168
References 169
13 River Ecology and Urban Pollution 173
Martin Fenn
13.1 Introduction 173
13.2 History of River Ecology Monitoring 174
13.2.1 Macroinvertebrates 175
13.2.2 Macrophytes 180
13.2.3 Diatoms 181
13.2.4 Fish 181
13.3 Success Stories 184
13.3.1 Case Study: Love Your Rivers Telford 184
13.3.2 River Wandle, South West London 184
13.4 Conclusions 185
References 185
xii Contents
14 Urban Meadows on Brownfield Land 187
Lynn Besenyei
14.1 Introduction 187
14.2 Creating Flower‐Rich Meadows 189
14.3 Brownfield Soils for Meadow Creation 192
14.4 Management of Created Meadows 193
14.5 Opportunities for Urban Meadow Creation 195
14.6 Conclusions 196
References 196
15 Urban Pollution and Ecosystem Services 199
Rebecca Wade
15.1 Introduction 199
15.2 Ecosystem Services (ES), the Ecosystem Approach, and Ecosystem Service
Valuation 199
15.3 Urban Impacts on ES 201
15.4 ES and Urban Pollution in the UK Legislative Context 202
15.5 Enhancing Urban ES to Mitigate Urban Pollution 203
15.6 Conclusions 206
References 207
16 Greywater Recycling and Reuse 211
Katherine Hyde and Matthew Smith
16.1 Introduction 211
16.2 The Ubiquitous Nature of Pollutants in Wastewater from Baths, Showers, and
Handbasins 211
16.3 The Quality of Untreated Greywater and Its Water Resource Value 212
16.4 Greywater Terminologies Used in this Chapter 213
16.5 Pollutants in Untreated Greywater 213
16.6 Standardising Greywater Treatment Systems: Removing and Minimising Pollutant
Concentrations 214
16.7 Managing the Environmental Characteristics, Applications, and Urban Uses of
Treated Greywater 216
16.8 University of Reading’s 2016 Experimental Irrigation of Sedum using Treated
Greywater 217
16.9 Soil Results Evaluated during Irrigation using Greywater Constituents 218
16.10 Applying the Principles of Controlled Waters to Greywater Discharges for Sustaining
Green Infrastructure 218
16.11 Concluding Comments and Review 220
Acknowledgements 220
References 220
17 Containment of Pollution from Urban Waste Disposal Sites 223
Isaac I. Akinwumi, Colin A. Booth, Oluwapelumi O. Ojuri, Adebanji S. Ogbiye,
and Akinwale O. Coker
17.1 Introduction 223
17.2 Generation of Waste Worldwide 224
17.3 Waste Management Issues 224
17.3.1 Sorting, Collection, Reuse, and Recycling 224