X-ray Microscopy

595 Pages·2019·30.06 MB·English

by  Chris Jacobsen

X-rayMicroscopy
Written by a pioneer in the field, this text provides a complete introduction to x-ray
microscopy,providingallofthetechnicalbackgroundrequiredtouse,understand,and
evendevelopx-raymicroscopes.Startingfromthebasicsofx-rayphysicsandfocusing
optics, it goes on to cover imaging theory, tomography, chemical and elemental anal-
ysis,lenslessimaging,computationalmethods,instrumentation,radiationdamage,and
cryomicroscopy, and includes a survey of recent scientific applications. Designed as a
“one-stop” text, it provides a unified notation, and shows how computational methods
indifferentareasarelinkedwithoneanother.Includingnumerousderivations,andillus-
trated with dozens of examples throughout, this is an essential text for academics and
practitioners across engineering, the physical sciences, and the life sciences who use
x-ray microscopy to analyze their specimens, as well as those taking courses in x-ray
microscopy.
ChrisJacobsenisArgonneDistinguishedFellowatArgonneNationalLaboratory,and
Professor of Physics and Astronomy at Northwestern University. He is also a Fellow
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Physical
Society,andtheOpticalSocietyofAmerica.
AdvancesinMicroscopyandMicroanalysis
Microscopicvisualizationtechniquesrangefromatomicimagingtovisualizationofliv-
ing cells at near nanometer spatial resolution, and advances in the field are fueled by
developments in computation, image detection devices, labeling, and sample prepara-
tionstrategies.Microscopyhasproventobeoneofthemostattractiveandprogressive
research tools available to the scientific community, and remains at the forefront of
researchinmanydisciplines,fromnanotechnologytolivecellmolecularimaging.This
series reflects the diverse role of microscopy, defining it as any method of imaging
objects of micrometer scale or less, and includes both introductory texts and highly
technicalandfocusedmonographsforresearchersandpractitionersinmaterialsandthe
lifesciences
SeriesEditors
PatriciaCalarco,UniversityofCalifornia,SanFrancisco
MichaelIsaacson,UniversityofCalifornia,SantaCruz
SeriesAdvisors
BridgetCarragher,TheScrippsResearchInstitute
WahChiu,BaylorCollegeofMedicine
ChristianColliex,UniversitéParisSud
UlrichDahmen,LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory
MarkEllisman,UniversityofCalifornia,SanDiego
PeterIngram,DukeUniversityMedicalCenter
J.RichardMcIntosh,UniversityofColorado
GiulioPozzi,UniversityofBologna
JohnC.H.Spence,ArizonaStateUniversity
ElmarZeitler,Fritz-HaberInstitute
BooksinSeries
Published
HeideSchatten,ScanningElectronMicroscopyfortheLifeSciences
FrancesRoss,LiquidCellElectronMicroscopy
JoelKubby,SylvainGigan,andMengCui,WavefrontShapingforBiomedicalImaging
ChrisJacobsen,X-RayMicroscopy
X-ray Microscopy
CHRIS JACOBSEN
ArgonneNationalLaboratory,Illinois
NorthwesternUniversity,Illinois
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www.cambridge.org
Informationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9781107076570
DOI:10.1017/9781139924542
(cid:2)c ChrisJacobsen2020
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Contents
Contributors pagexii
Foreword xiii
1 X-raymicroscopes:ashortintroduction 1
1.1 Howtoreadthisbook 2
1.2 Onlineappendices 3
1.3 Keymathematicalsymbolsandformulae 3
2 Abitofhistory 5
2.1 Ro¨ntgenandthediscoveryofXrays 5
2.2 Einsteinandmirrors 9
2.3 ColdWarmicroscopes 12
2.4 Zoneplates 13
2.5 Synchrotronsandlasers 14
2.6 Lenslessmicroscopes 19
2.7 Thedustbinofhistory 21
2.8 Concludinglimerick 22
3 X-rayphysics 23
3.1 TheBohrmodel,energylevels,andx-rayshells 23
3.1.1 X-rayfluorescenceandAugeremission 26
3.1.2 X-raytransitions:fluorescencenomenclature 30
3.1.3 Beyond the core: the Fermi energy, valence electrons, and
plasmonmodes 35
3.2 Atomicinteractions,scattering,andabsorption 38
3.2.1 Scatteringbyasingleelectron 41
3.2.2 Scatteringbyanatom 42
3.3 Thex-rayrefractiveindex 45
3.3.1 Electromagneticwavesinmedia 47
3.3.2 Thegreatfrequencydivideandtherefractiveindex 49
3.3.3 X-raylinearabsorptioncoefficient 55
3.3.4 TheBornandRytovapproximations 57
3.3.5 Oscillatordensityinmolecules,compounds,andmixtures 59
3.4 Anomalousdispersion:lifeontheedge 62
vi Contents
3.4.1 TheKramers–Kronigrelations 63
3.5 X-rayrefraction 64
3.6 X-rayreflectivity 66
3.7 Concludinglimerick 70
4 Imagingphysics 71
4.1 Wavesandrays 71
4.1.1 Addingupwaves 71
4.1.2 Rayleighquarterwavecriterion 76
4.1.3 Connectingwavesandrays 76
4.2 Gratingsanddiffraction 78
4.2.1 Slitsandplanegratings 78
4.2.2 VolumegratingsandBragg’slaw 80
4.2.3 Bragg’slawandcrystals 82
4.2.4 Syntheticmultilayermirrors 83
4.2.5 MomentumtransferandtheEwaldsphere 86
4.3 Wavefieldpropagation 92
4.3.1 TheHuygensconstruction 93
4.3.2 Fraunhoferapproximation 95
4.3.3 Fouriertransforms:analyticalanddiscrete 96
4.3.4 Powerspectraofimages 100
4.3.5 Fraunhoferdiffraction 101
4.3.6 Fresnelpropagationbyintegration,andbyconvolution 102
4.3.7 Fresnelpropagation,distances,andsampling 104
4.3.8 Propagationanddiffractionincircularcoordinates 106
4.3.9 Multislicepropagation 110
4.4 Imagingsystems 112
4.4.1 Fieldofview 114
4.4.2 Opticalsystemviapropagators 116
4.4.3 Diffractionandlensresolution 119
4.4.4 Beatingthediffractionlimitinlightmicroscopy 122
4.4.5 Cylindrical(1Dby1D)optics 126
4.4.6 Coherence,phasespace,andfocalspots 129
4.4.7 Transferfunctions 138
4.4.8 Deconvolution:correctingforthetransferfunction 141
4.4.9 Depthresolutionanddepthoffield 144
4.5 Full-fieldimaging 149
4.5.1 TXMcondensers,STXMdetectors,andreciprocity 152
4.6 Dark-fieldimaging 154
4.7 Phasecontrast 156
4.7.1 Phasecontrastincoherentimagingmethods 159
4.7.2 Propagation-basedphasecontrast 160
4.7.3 Zernikephasecontrastimaging 162
4.7.4 Differentialphasecontrast 165
Contents vii
4.7.5 Grazingincidenceimaging 167
4.8 Imagestatistics,exposure,anddose 169
4.8.1 PhotonstatisticsandthecontrastparameterΘ 169
4.8.2 Minimumdetectionlimits 172
4.8.3 Signaltonoiseandresolutionfromexperimentalimages 174
4.8.4 Estimatingtherequiredphotonexposure 177
4.8.5 Imagingmodesanddiffraction 181
4.9 Fromexposuretoradiationdose 183
4.9.1 Doseversusresolution 186
4.10 Comparisonwithelectronmicroscopyandmicroanalysis 187
4.10.1 Elementalmapping 188
4.10.2 Transmissionelectronmicroscopy 191
4.10.3 Acomparisonoftransmissionimagingwithelectronsandwith
Xrays 194
4.11 Seethewholepicture 197
4.12 Concludinglimerick 198
5 X-rayfocusingoptics 199
5.1 Refractiveoptics 199
5.1.1 Compoundrefractivelenses 200
5.2 Reflectiveoptics 204
5.2.1 Grazingincidencespheresandtoroids 207
5.2.2 Kirkpatrick–BaezandMontelmirrors 209
5.2.3 EllipsoidalandWoltermirrors,andsinglecapillaries 211
5.2.4 Multilayermirrors 213
5.2.5 Non-imaginggrazingincidenceoptics 215
5.3 Diffractiveoptics 216
5.3.1 Fresnelzoneplates 216
5.3.2 Focusingefficiency 221
5.3.3 Ordersorting 224
5.3.4 Fabrication 225
5.3.5 Makingzoneplatesthicker 230
5.3.6 ThickzoneplatesandmultilayerLauelenses 232
5.3.7 MultilayerLauelenses:practicalconsiderations 235
5.4 Combinedoptics 236
5.5 Resolutionovertheyears 238
5.6 Concludinglimerick 240
6 X-raymicroscopesystems 241
6.1 Contactmicroscopy 242
6.2 Pointprojectionx-raymicroscopes 243
6.3 Full-fieldmicroscopes,ortransmissionx-raymicroscopes 246
6.3.1 Zoneplatecondensers 248
6.3.2 Capillarycondensers 249
viii Contents
6.4 Scanningx-raymicroscopes 252
6.5 Electronopticalx-raymicroscopes(PEEMandothers) 256
6.6 Concludinglimerick 258
7 X-raymicroscopeinstrumentation 259
7.1 X-raysources 260
7.1.1 Photometricmeasures 261
7.1.2 Laboratoryx-raysources:electronimpact 263
7.1.3 Unconventionallaboratoryx-raysources 266
7.1.4 Synchrotronlightsources 267
7.1.5 Bendingmagnetsources 271
7.1.6 Undulatorsources 272
7.1.7 InverseComptonscatteringsources 277
7.1.8 X-rayfree-electronlasers(FELs) 277
7.2 X-raybeamlines 280
7.2.1 Monochromatorsandbandwidthconsiderations 280
7.2.2 Coherenceandphasespacematching 282
7.2.3 Slitsandshutters 285
7.2.4 Radiationshielding 286
7.2.5 Thermalmanagement 286
7.2.6 Vacuumissues,andcontaminationandcleaningofsurfaces 287
7.3 Nanopositioningsystems 288
7.4 X-raydetectors 292
7.4.1 Detectorstatistics 294
7.4.2 Detectorstatistics:deadtime 297
7.4.3 Detectorstatistics:chargeintegration 299
7.4.4 Pixelatedareadetectors 302
7.4.5 Semiconductordetectors 303
7.4.6 Sensorchipsfordirectx-rayconversion 308
7.4.7 Scintillatordetectors:visible-lightconversion 308
7.4.8 Gas-baseddetectors 310
7.4.9 Superconductingdetectors 312
7.4.10 Energy-resolvingdetectors 313
7.4.11 Wavelength-dispersivedetectors 313
7.4.12 Energy-dispersivedetectors 314
7.5 Sampleenvironments 316
7.5.1 Siliconnitridewindows 318
7.6 Concludinglimerick 320
8 X-raytomography 321
8.1 Tomographybasics 322
8.1.1 TheCrowthercriterion:howmanyprojections? 325
8.1.2 Backprojection,filteredbackprojection,andgridrec 327
8.2 Algebraic(matrix-based)reconstructionmethods 329