Table Of ContentFifth Edition
Wine
Science
Principles
and
Applications
Ronald S. Jackson, PhD
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This book is dedicated to the memory of Suzanne Ouellet and all those who labor,
often in the background and without fanfare, to produce the wines that can so inspire us, the consumer.
About the Author
Theauthorreceivedhisbachelor’sandmaster’sdegreesfromQueen’sUniversity,Kingston,anddoctoratefrom
theUniversityofToronto.HistimeinVineland,Ontario,andsubsequentsabbaticalatCornellUniversityredirected
his interest in Botrytis toward viticulture and enology. As part of his teaching duties at Brandon University, he
developedthefirstwinetechnologycourseinCanada.Formanyyears,hewasatechnicaladvisortotheManitoba
LiquorControlCommission,developingsensoryteststoassesscandidatesforitsSensoryPanel,andwasamember
ofitsExternalTastingPanel.Inaddition,heisauthorofWineTasting:AProfessionalHandbook,ConserveWaterDrink
Wine,aswellasnumerouschaptersandtechnicalreviews.HeisretiredinOakville,Ontario,butremainsactivein
writing,hiking,cycling,swimming,etc.HecanbereachedviaElsevier,525BStreetSuite1800,SanDiego,CA92101-
4495, or through the Cool Climate Viticulture and Oenology Institute, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario,
whereheis aFellow.
xi
Preface
There are three pillars of wine sciencedgrape culture, wine production, and sensory analysis. Although it is
traditionaltocoverthesetopicsseparately,ajointdiscussionreinforcestheirnaturalrelationships.
Wine’s botanicalorigin andmicrobial transformation require a discussion of the physiology and genetics of the
vine, yeasts, and bacteria. These are crucial to understanding the biologic and chemical genesis of wine quality.
Similarly, microclimatology and soil physicochemistry reveal the vineyard derivatives of grape quality. Equally,
improvedsensoryproceduresarepermittingvineyardandwinerymodificationstobebetterevaluated,asaclearer
understanding of sensory psychophysiology is revealing the basis of wine appreciation and food pairing. Finally,
investigation of the health-related aspects of wine consumption is revealing its real, versus imagined, benefits and
dangers.
Much of the data in the text is derived from a few Western European cultivars. Thus, caution must be taken in
extrapolatingthisinformationtootherregionsandcultivars.Conversely,challengingtheestablishedperceptshasled
Australian producers to sculpt exceptional wines from cultivars grown under conditions climatically distinct from
theirancestralhomelands.
Theprincipalthemeoftheworkinvolvesthevariousgeneratorsofwinequality.Assuch,thetextconcentrateson
anunderstandingoftheprinciplesofgrapegrowthandwineproduction.Thebenefitsanddeficitsassociatedwiththe
various choices at each stage are discussed, providing a background for rational selection of what may be the best
optionsunderlocalconditions.Evenbookswitharegionalfocusfinditdifficulttopresentprecisesuggestions.There
aretoomanyvariationsevenwithinsmallviticulturalregionstopermitadetailedformulatoberecommendedfor
producingparticularwinestylesinapaint-by-numberapproach.
Sciencecanonlyprovideevidence-basedguidance,presentreasonsforbestpractice,andenunciatethepotential
advantagesanddisadvantagesofoptionsforachievingprecisegoalsdnotechniqueiswithoutdrawbacks.Becauseof
seasonal and vineyard variability, it is rarely possible to provide choices with the clarity and certainty that grape
growersandwinemakersmightwish.Individualexperimentationisstilltheonlymeansofestablishingwhatworksin
aspecificlocation,climate,andsituationaswellashowqualitymaybeenhanced.Sciencecanpresentaroadmap;
winemakersdecidetheroute.
Onenegativesideeffectofourrapidlyadvancingknowledgeisthepotentialforconfusion.Practitionersoftenget
annoyedwithdifferencesinopinionandchangingviewspontificatedbyexperts.Thereisamisconceptionthatsci-
entistsknow,ratherthanaresearchersfor,thetruth.Researchstudiesarelimitedbytime,space,funding,andanalytic
andstatisticalprocedures,andifwearehonest,biasatalllevels.Nonetheless,lackofagreementisnoreasontoshun
decadesofdedicatedresearchandtoembracesuperstitionandlong-disprovenarchaicconcepts.Whywouldanyone
genuinely wish to go back to the rigors and pain of medieval, prescientific life? Biodynamic views may simplify
decisions,harkeningbacktosomeillusionaryidyllicpast,butatwhatcost?Whatisrequirediscriticalthinkingbased
onreasonandevidence.Weneedmore,notless,scienceifaffordable,high-qualitywineisevertofillthesupermarket
shelf. It is consumer confidence in product quality that provides employment for millions in the wine industry,
maintaining farmland value and stemming the tide of developers intent on covering vineyards with asphalt-
interlaced suburbia.
Becauseknowledgeisalwaysinastateofflux,presentingwherefurtherstudyisneededisalmostasimportantas
outliningcurrentopinion.Whileimpossibletoexhaustivelytreatalldivergentviews,thoseopinionswiththegreatest
support,practicalvalue,andrelevancearenoted.Forsomecontentiousissues,furtherinvestigationmaydifferentiate
between correlation and causation as well as veracity; for others, personal preference will always be the deciding
factor. I extend my apologies to those who may feel that their views have been inadequately or inappropriately
presentedorforwhommyexpressedopinionsarenottotheirliking.
Theeffectsofglobalwarmingonviticulturearebecomingincreasinglyobviousandconcerning.Althoughitsrate,
timing,extent,andeffectsarestillmarginallyconjectural,theclearindicationsaredire.Ifevenmildscenarioscometo
fruition,theeffectswillbeenormous.Althoughfamousvineyardsmaybeunderwaterandgrapeadaptationtosite
xiii
xiv
Preface
severelydislocated,themostdevastatingeffectswillbeseriousdisruptionstoworldagricultureandthepoliticaland
socialturmoilthatwillensue.
Forstudents,Ihavetriedtosupplysomeperiodicrespitesfromtechnicaldetailwithsnipsofconjecture,levity,and
history. The latter demonstrates the expertise and observational acumen of our forebearers. Not only can this be
humbling,butitalsohelpstoexemplifyhowpreviouscultureshaveviewedabeveragesodeartoourhearts.
Withtherecentprofusionofgenomicandother-omicstudies,newinsightsintotheevolutionandregulationof
grapevineandmicrobialgrowtharebeingrevealed.Whilefascinating,thereisstillagapbetweenthesediscoveries
andtheirpracticalapplication.Thus,thereisstillamplescopeforinquiryforthenextgenerationofresearchers.
AlistofSuggestedReadingisgivenattheendofeachchaptertoguidefurtherstudy.Citationsinthetextprovide
thesourcesoftheinformationnoted.AlthoughmostareinEnglish,wheretherearenoneorthebestsourcesarein
foreignlanguages,theseareprovided.
Several conventions have been used throughout the text. Where no common chemical name is available or
preferred, IUPAC terminology is typically used. For genes and their protein transcripts, the current practice of
acronymuseisfollowed,withthefirstlettersofthegenericnameusedtodesignatethehostspecies(e.g.,VvforVitis
vinifera). For specific genes, italicized capitals are used (e.g., VvMYBA1), whereas their protein transcripts appear
nonitalicized(e.g.,VvMYBA1).
Inwritingthistext,IamalwaysremindedofwhatDr.HaroldGood,mymostinfluentialprofessoratQueen’s,once
statedinreferencetosomeill-consideredcommentImadejustpriortomyBScgraduation:
Ifyouthinkyouhavelearnedagreatdealduringyouryearshere,youshouldnotgraduate.Whatyoushouldhavelearnedistheextent
ofyourignorance.
Notwhatagraduatingstudentwantstohear,buttrue.Overtheyears,Ihaveincreasinglyinvestigatedthelimitsof
that“ignorance,”andcelebratethewondersbeingexposedandanticipatethosetocome.Ourspecieshasdiscovered
somuchthatisastounding,butprobablyonlythetipofamuchmorespectacularicebergofinsights.
Acknowledgments
Withouttheastuteobservationsofgenerationsofwinemakersandgrapegrowersandthededicatedresearchof
countlessenologistsandviticulturalists,thisworkwouldnothavebeenpossible.Thus,generalacknowledgmentis
giventothosewhoseworkorpublicationshavenotbeenspecificallycited.Appreciationisalsogiventoreviewers
who readchaptersand providedconstructive criticism for thefirst edition, as well as individualswhohave taken
their time to point out errors, most recently Jean Thurley. Credit must also go to the various editors who have
helped over the years in the preparation of various editions of the text. However, special thanks go to Nancy
Maragioglio. She has greatly facilitated preparation of the last three editions. Her encouragement and creativity
havenotonlyimprovedtheproduct,butalsoaddedtothejoyofitspreparation.Appreciationalsogoestoallthose
at Elsevier whose skills have added to the quality of the final product.
Gratitude is also expressed to the many researchers, companies, institutes, and publishers who have freely
donated photographs, data, diagrams, or figures that illustrate the text.
Finally, the work is dedicated to my late wife, Suzanne Ouellet, whose unfailing support and encouragement
were essential in bringing the work to fruition.
xv
C H A P T E R
1
Introduction
O U T L I N E
Grapevine and wineorigins 1 Wine quality 14
Commercial importance of grapes and wine 9
Health-related aspects ofwine consumption 15
Wine classification 11
Still table wines 11 References 17
Sparkling wines 13
Fortifiedwines (dessert and appetizer wines) 14 Suggested readings 20
Grapevine and wine origins
anthocyanin, has been found in a container associated
with what appears to be a grape press (Areshian et al.,
Winehasanarcheologicalrecorddatingbackatleast 2012). Although malvidin is relatively uncommon in
8 millennia. Residues consistent with wine (or at least otherfleshyfruit,itdoesoccurinpomegranates(Punica
grapejuice)havebeenfoundintheSouthCaucasusdin granatum),indigenoustotheregion.Evidenceofdomes-
pottery shards from Georgia, w6000e5000 BCE ticated grapevines (Ramishvili, 1988), grape remains
(McGovern et al. (2017), and a clay pot from northern (Areshian et al., 2012), and residues in pottery
Iran,w5400e5000BCE(Fig.1.1).Theresiduescontained throughout the region suggests that wine production
crystals of calcium tartrate, typically found in grapes mayhavebeenwelldispersedthroughouttheCaucasus
andwine.Tartaricacidisrarelyfoundinotherregional during the Neolithic period (P.E. McGovern, personal
fruit,exceptinghawthorns.Bothsitesaresituatedalong communication).
the southeastern rim of the natural habitats of wild Pyriform vessels appearing to contain wine residues
grapevines. The relatively small, narrow-necked, have been found farther south (Godin Tepe,
ceramic vessel from Iran also contained traces of tere- w3100e2900BCE).Fromthedistributionoftheresidues
binth, a resin from Pistacia terebinthus. Resin was in the vessels, they appeared to have been laid on their
commonly used as an inner coating to waterproof pot- side, possibly for storage (Badler, 1995). The vessels
tery vessels (Serpico, 2000; Arobba et al., 2014). alsopossessedaninnerslipoffine,firedclay.Thiscould
Amphorae so treated have been found in Egyptian have made them comparatively nonporous. They were
tombs (Hayes, 1951; McGovern, 1997). Amphorae are a also apparently sealed with clay closures (Michel et al.,
later development in pottery production used for stor- 1993).
age and transport. They were typically two-handled The earliest evidence of wine residues from the
and elongated, and had a capacity of about 30L. Resin AegeancomesfromaNeolithicjarinDikiliTash(north-
alsohadantimicrobialandflavorantproperties.During ern Greece), w2300 BCE (Garnier and Valamoti, 2016),
Roman times, the resins commonly used to line and for the Mediterranean, pottery found in a cave in
amphorae were derived from pine sap (e.g., Pinus hale- Sicily, w1500 BCE (Tanasi et al., 2017).
pensis) (Columella in De Re Rustica, 12.20e14; Pliny in However,ifallthatisneededfor wine’s“discovery”
HistoriaNaturalis, 14.25). is a human population in a region where grapes grow
Another,possiblyindependent, sitefor wine’sorigin indigenously,thencurrentestimatesfor wine’sproduc-
is in neighboring Armenia (Barnard et al., 2011). Evi- tion may be short by several thousand years. For
dence for the presence of malvidin, the major grape example, the complex of buildings in southeastern
WineScience,FifthEdition 1
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816118-0.00001-5 ©2020ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
2
1. Introduction
screes),opportunitiesforcollectingsignificantquantities
ofwildgrapeswouldprobablyhavebeenlimited.Wine
production, as normally defined, also demands some
form of impervious, ideally sealable, container. Thus,
any significant wine production probably postdates
the development of agriculture and a settled lifestyle.
Even accidental seed germination in rubbish piles
would have taken several years before the vines pro-
duced fruit. Admittedly, all this is speculative. Thus,
the timing and events that ultimately led to wine, and
its spread,willalways remainanenigma.
Nonetheless,narrow-neckedpotteryvesselswerebe-
ingproducedabout8000yearsago,andtheavailability
ofwood-derivedresins(sealingthevessels)wouldhave
made wine storage possible. The use of wineskins is
FIGURE 1.1 anotheroption,butoneforwhichnoarchaeologicalev-
Pottery vessel from which residues likely to be of
idence remains. Wineskins, smeared with pitch, were
Neolithic wine were found in Hajji Firuz, in the northern Zagros
mountainsofIran. FromMcGovern,P.E.,Glusker,D.L.,Exner,L.J.,Voigt, used by the peasantry to store wine in Spain in the
M.M.,1996.Neolithicresinatedwine.Nature381,480e481,bypermission 1800s (Henderson, 1824, p. 188), possibly reflecting a
ofNature/Springer. technique millenniaold.
Thepresenceofcarbonatedgrape-seedremainsfrom
Turkey (Go¨bekli Tepe), w9000 BCE (Schmidt, 2010), 3rd-and4th-centuryBCJordansuggeststhatviticulture,
must have required a large labor force. The buildings and possibly winemaking, had already spread beyond
appear to have been constructed by a hunteregatherer the indigenous range of wild grapevines. This suggests
society (predating agricultureor pottery production). If purposeful cultivation (McGovern et al., 1997; Zohary
wine were produced by this society, it presumably was and Hopf, 2000).
in limited quantities and consumed shortly after However, the first unequivocal evidence of inten-
production. tional winemaking appears in representations of wine
Older examples of fermented beverages have been presses from the reign of Udimu (Egypt), w3000 BCE
discovered (McGovern et al., 2004), but they appear to (Petrie, 1923). Wine residues have also been found in
have been produced from a mixture of rice, honey, and amphorae, specifically so marked, in many ancient
variousfruits(hawthornand/orgrape).Suchbeverages Egyptian tombs. The earliest dates from the reign of
were being produced in China as early as 7000 BCE. King Semerkhet (2920e2770 BCE) (Guasch-Jane´ et al.,
Although China is home to several Vitis spp., most of 2004). Amphorae marked as containing white and red
itsalcoholicbeverageshavehistoricallybeenricebased wine were discovered in King Tutankhamun’s tomb
(Poo, 1999). (1325 BCE) (Lesko, 1977). Confirmation of origin has
As noted, the presence of calcium tartrate crystals is been established by the presence of syringic acid, an
usually considered indicative of wine residues. Addi- alkaline breakdown product of malvidin-3-glucoside.
tionalpotential(butnotexclusive)indicatorsaretannin The same technique has been used to establish the red
residues(Garnieretal.,2003),ergosterol(produceddur- grape origin of an ancient Egyptian drink, shedeh
ing yeast fermentation) (Isaksson et al., 2010), waxes (Guasch-Jane´ et al., 2006). It was a filtered, heated
(from grape skins) (Isaksson, 2005), and Vitis pollen wine(Tallet,1995).ForadditionaldetailsaboutEgyptian
(Arobbaetal.,2014).Amorespecific(butrare)indicator wine jars, and their sealing, see Lesko (1977), Hope
of the past presence of wine (or grapes) would be the (1978), and McGovern et al. (1997). However, the effec-
isolationof grape DNA (Milanesi et al., 2011). tivenessofreeds,coveredwithaclaytop,inpreserving
Other than problems associated with differentiating wine against spoilage seems doubtful (Fig. 8.45). The
between dried grape and wine residues, there is the amphorae are fascinating, though, in their possessing
thorny issue of what actually constitutes wine. Does notationsonthewine’sorigin,thevintage,thevineyard,
spontaneously fermented grape juice qualify as wine, and occasionally the winemaker (McGovern, 1997).
or should the term be restricted to juice fermented and EquivalentindicationsoforiginhavebeenfoundonRo-
stored in a manner capable of retaining its winelike manamphoraeinPompeii,occasionallyincludingindi-
properties? The latter would suggest purposeful intent, cations of the owner (Jashemski, 1975). Although DNA
ratherthan a fortuitous happenstance. analysis of amphora contents has begun (Milanesi
Because of low yield, seasonal availability, and mar- etal.,2011;Foleyetal.,2012),ithasyettobeusedtosug-
ginal availability (vines growing up trees or straddling gest varietal origin.
