Wind Power Integration: Connection and System Operational Aspects

322 Pages·2014·14.28 MB·English

by  Brendan Fox, Leslie Bryans, Damian Flynn, Nick Jenkins, David Milborrow, Mark O’Malley, Richard Watson, Olimpo Anaya-Lara

Renewable Energy Series 14
Wind Power Integration
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The rapid growth of wind generation has many implications for power system planning, operation and control. d

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(cid:127) the development of wind power technology and its world-wide deployment rar
(cid:127) a primer in electric power engineering for non-electrical engineers – which system ta
delivers significant wind energy to consumers at least cost? iot
(cid:127) wind power technology and the interaction of various wind turbine generator types naio
with the utility network l An
(cid:127) utility networks, and how they may be developed to accept significant wind power s
(cid:127) how operational practice can be modified to take account of a variable power p
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(cid:127) wind power forecasting s
(cid:127) the challenges faced by wind energy in modern electricity markets , 2
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New discussions have been added to describe developments in wind turbine generator technology and d
control, the network integration of wind power, innovative ways to integrate wind power when its generation E
potential exceeds 50% of demand, case studies on how forecasting errors have affected system operation, and d
an update on how the wind energy sector has fared in the marketplace. itio
Wind Power Integration: Connection and System Operational Aspects, 2nd Edition will appeal to engineers n Wind Power Integration
from various disciplines looking for an overview of a technology that is providing a major impetus for
sustainable electricity supply in the twenty-first century.
Connection and System Operational Aspects, 2nd Edition
F
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Nick Jenkins, David Milborrow, Mark O’Malley,
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The Institution of Engineering and Technology Richard Watson, Olimpo Anaya-Lara
www.theiet.org
ISBN 978-1-84919-493-8
Wind Power Integration.indd 1 07/05/2014 12:00:20
IET RENEWABLEENERGYSERIES 14
Wind Power Integration
Othervolumesinthisseries:
Volume1 DistributedgenerationN.Jenkins,J.B.EkanayakeandG.Strbac
Volume6 MicrogridsandactivedistributionnetworksS.Chowdhury,S.P.Chowdhury
andP.Crossley
Volume7 Propulsionsystemsforhybridvehicles,2ndeditionJ.M.Miller
Volume8 Energy:resources,technologiesandtheenvironmentC.Ngo
Volume9 SolarphotovoltaicenergyA.LabouretandM.Villoz
Volume10 Scenariosforafutureelectricitysupply:cost-optimizedvariationson
supplyingeuropeanditsneighbourswithelectricityfromrenewable
energiesG.Czisch
Volume11 Cogeneration:auser’sguideD.Flin
Volume13 Offshorewindturbines:reliability,availabilityandmaintenanceP.Tavner
Volume16 ModellingdistributedenergyresourcesinenergyservicenetworksS.Acha
Volume17 ElectricaldesignforoceanwaveandtidalenergysystemsR.Alcornand
D.O’Sullivan(Editors)
Wind Power Integration
Connection and System
Operational Aspects
2nd Edition
Brendan Fox, Leslie Bryans,
Damian Flynn, Nick Jenkins,
David Milborrow, Mark O’Malley,
Richard Watson and Olimpo Anaya-Lara
The Institution ofEngineeringand Technology
PublishedbyTheInstitutionofEngineeringandTechnology,London,UnitedKingdom
TheInstitutionofEngineeringandTechnologyisregisteredasaCharityinEngland&
Wales(no.211014)andScotland(no.SC038698).
†TheInstitutionofEngineeringandTechnology2007and2014
Firstpublished2007
SecondEdition2014
ThispublicationiscopyrightundertheBerneConventionandtheUniversalCopyright
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orprivatestudy,orcriticismorreview,aspermittedundertheCopyright,Designsand
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Contents
Preface ix
Preface toSecondEdition xi
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Overview 1
1.2 World energy and climate change 2
1.2.1 Renewable energy 2
1.3 Wind energy 5
1.3.1 Background 5
1.3.2 Changes insize and output 6
1.3.3 Energy productivity 7
1.4 Design options 7
1.4.1 Blades 8
1.4.2 Control and the power train 8
1.4.3 Summary of principal designoptions 9
1.5 Wind farms 10
1.5.1 Offshore wind 11
1.6 Economics 11
1.6.1 Wind turbine prices 11
1.6.2 Electricity-generating costs 11
1.6.3 Carbon dioxide savings 13
1.7 Integration and variability – key issues 14
1.7.1 Wind fluctuations 15
1.7.2 Capacity credits 16
1.7.3 Embedded generation benefits and impacts 17
1.7.4 Storage 17
1.8 Future developments 18
1.8.1 Technology 18
1.8.2 Future price trends 18
1.8.3 Market growth 19
1.8.4 Integration issues 19
2 Power system fundamentals 21
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Basic principles 21
2.2.1 Electromagnetism 21
2.2.2 Magnetic circuits 23
vi Wind power integration
2.2.3 Electromagnetic induction 24
2.2.4 Electricity supply 25
2.2.5 The transformer 26
2.3 AC power supply 28
2.3.1 Power insteady-state AC systems 28
2.3.2 Phasors 30
2.3.3 Power inAC systems 33
2.4 Introduction to power systems 34
2.4.1 Three-phase systems 34
2.4.2 Comparison of single- and three-phase systems 35
2.4.3 Three-phase supply 36
2.4.4 Balanced star-connected load 37
2.4.5 Balanced delta-connected load 38
2.4.6 Some useful conventions 39
2.4.7 The complex VAproduct 39
2.4.8 Equivalent single-phase 41
2.4.9 The per unit system 41
2.5 Power transmission 44
2.5.1 Line parameters 44
2.5.2 Line models 47
2.5.3 Power transmission 48
2.5.4 Voltage regulation 49
3 Windpowertechnology 53
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Historical review of wind power technology 53
3.3 Design choices forlarge wind turbine generators 55
3.4 Energy extractionand power regulation 56
3.4.1 Energy extractionacross the rotor disk 56
3.4.2 Power regulation 59
3.5 Fixed-speed wind turbines 64
3.5.1 Review of the induction (asynchronous)machine 64
3.5.2 Fixed-speed induction generator-basedwind turbine 70
3.6 Variable–speed wind turbines 72
3.6.1 Doubly fed induction generator wind turbine 73
3.6.2 Wide-range variable-speed synchronous
generator wind turbine 78
Note: The Betz Limit 86
4 Networkintegrationof windpower 89
4.1 Introduction 89
4.2 Wind farm starting 89
4.3 Network voltage management 91
4.3.1 The voltage level issue 91
Contents vii
4.4 Thermal/active power management 106
4.4.1 Planning approaches/standards 106
4.4.2 Wind farm connection issues 107
4.4.3 Backbone system issues 109
4.4.4 Equipment issues 113
4.5 Network power quality management 115
4.5.1 Dips 116
4.5.2 Harmonics 116
4.5.3 Flicker 117
4.6 Transient system performance 117
4.6.1 Frequency performance and dynamic response 117
4.6.2 Transient response 122
4.7 Fault level issues 127
4.7.1 Equipment capability 127
4.8 Information 129
4.9 Protection 129
4.9.1 System protection 129
4.9.2 Transmission connected wind farms 130
4.9.3 Distributionconnected wind farms 133
4.9.4 Wind farm protection 135
5 Operationof powersystems 137
5.1 Introduction 137
5.2 Load-frequency control 137
5.2.1 Unit load-frequency control 142
5.2.2 Emergency frequency control 145
5.3 System operation with wind power 150
5.3.1 Overviewofsystemoperationalchallengesofwindpower 150
5.3.2 Wind power in Ireland 153
5.3.3 System operation and wind variability 168
5.3.4 System operational modes 179
5.3.5 Capacity credit 186
5.3.6 Ancillary service provision 190
5.3.7 Wind turbine generator inertial response 198
5.3.8 Distributed generation protection 202
5.4 Energy balance 204
5.5 Energy storage/demand-side participation 207
5.5.1 Conventional energy storage 209
5.5.2 Demand-side participation 213
5.5.3 Hydrogen energy storage 215
6 Windpowerforecasting 217
6.1 Introduction 217
6.2 Meteorological background 218
viii Wind power integration
6.2.1 Meteorology, weather and climate 218
6.2.2 Atmospheric structure and scales 218
6.3 Numerical weather prediction 219
6.4 Persistence forecasting 222
6.4.1 Error measures 222
6.4.2 Reference models 225
6.5 Advanced wind power forecasting systems 229
6.5.1 Prediktor 234
6.5.2 Statistical models 238
6.5.3 Ensemble forecasting 242
6.6 Conclusions 244
7 Windpowerandelectricity markets 245
7.1 Introduction 245
7.2 The electrical energy market 247
7.3 Balancing, capacity and ancillary services 249
7.4 Support mechanisms 251
7.5 Costs 252
7.6 Benefits 255
7.7 Investment and risk 256
7.8 Market development 257
8 The future 259
8.1 Introduction 259
8.2 Grid codes and beyond 260
8.3 Co-existence with other formsof low-carbongeneration 261
8.4 Demand-side participation 262
8.5 Supply diversity 263
Appendix1 FACTStechnology 265
Appendix2 Technical criteria for windfarm power stations
connected to the transmissionsystem 271
References 287
Index 297
Preface
Theimpetusforthebookistherapidgrowthofwindpowerandtheimplicationsof
thisforfuturepowersystemplanning,operationandcontrol.Thiswouldhavebeen
aconsiderablechallengefortheverticallyintegratedpowercompaniespre-1990.It
has become an even greater challenge in today’s liberalised electricity market
conditions. The aim of the book is to examine the main problems of wind power
integration on a significant scale. The authors then draw on their knowledge and
expertise to help guide the reader through a number of solutions based on current
research and onoperational experience of wind power integrationto date.
Thebook’sbackdropwasthecommitmentoftheUKgovernment(andEuropean
governmentsgenerally)toatargetof10%ofelectricalenergyfromrenewableenergy
sources by 2010, and an ‘aspirational goal’ of 20% by 2020. There has also been a
significantreductioninthecostofwindpowerplant,andhenceenergycost.Where
averagewindspeedsare8m/sormore,asisthecaseformuchofGreatBritainand
Ireland, the basic production cost of wind energy is nearly competitive with elec-
tricity from combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) plant, without the concern about
long-term availability and cost. The downside is that the supply over the system
operationaltime-scaleisdifficulttopredict.Inanycase,windpowercannotprovide
‘firm capacity’, and therefore suffers commercially in markets such as BETTA
(Britishelectricitytradingandtransmissionarrangements).Ontheotherhand,green
incentives in the form of renewable obligation certificates (ROCs) provide wind
generators with a significant extra income. This is encouraging developers to come
forward in numbers which suggest that the 10% target may be attained. Indeed,
Germany,SpainandIrelandarealreadyexperiencingwindenergypenetrationlevels
intheregionof5%,whileDenmarkreachedalevelof20%someyearsago.
The book attempts to provide a solid grounding in all significant aspects of
windpowerintegrationforengineersinavarietyofdisciplines.Thusamechanical
engineerwilllearnsufficientelectricalpowerengineeringtounderstandwindfarm
voltage regulation and fault ride-through problems; while an electrical engineer
will benefit from the treatment of wind turbine aerodynamics. They will both
wishtounderstandelectricitymarkets,andinparticular howwindenergyislikely
to fare.
The introductory chapter charts the remarkable growth of wind energy since
1990. The various technical options for wind power extraction are outlined. This
chapter then goes on to describe the potential problems of large-scale wind inte-
gration, and outlines some possible solutions. The second chapter isessentially an
electrical power engineering primer, which will enable non-electrical engineers to