Wiley Survey of Instrumentation and Measurement

1096 Pages·2001·17.744 MB·English

by  Stephen A. Dyer

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SURVEY OF INSTRUMENTATION
AND MEASUREMENT
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SURVEY OF
INSTRUMENTATION
AND MEASUREMENT
Stephen A. Dyer,Editor
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Kansas State University
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
New York/Chichester/Weinheim/Brisbane/Singapore/Toronto
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(cid:2)
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Fororderingandcustomerservice,call1-800-CALL-WILEY.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData:
Surveyofinstrumentationandmeasurement/StephenA.Dyer,editor.
p. cm.
ArticlesselectedfromtheWileyencyclopediaofelectricalandelectronicsengineering.
Includesindex.
ISBN0-471-39484-X(cloth:alk.paper)
1.Mensuration. 2.Measuringinstruments. 3.Electricmeters. I.Dyer,StephenA.
T50.S89 2001
681(cid:3).2—dc21
00-068602
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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CONTENTS
PREFACE vii ELECTRICALVARIABLES 339
INTRODUCTION ix ChargeMeasurement 339
ElectricCurrentMeasurement 343
INSTRUMENTATIONANDMEASUREMENT— InductanceMeasurement 347
INTRODUCTORY 1 CapacitanceMeasurement 358
Q-FactorMeasurement 372
Instruments 1 Q-Meters 387
MeasurementErrors 14
AutomaticTestEquipment 25
ELECTROMAGNETICVARIABLES 397
SENSORSANDTRANSDUCERS 37 ElectricStrength 397
ElectromagneticFieldMeasurement 401
ElectricSensingDevices 37 MagneticFieldMeasurement 410
MagneticSensors 46 AttenuationMeasurement 422
HallEffectTransducers 60 Loss-AngleMeasurement 439
PressureSensors 71 WavelengthMeter 452
PiezoresistiveDevices 84 Reflectometers,Time-Domain 467
StrainSensors 87 StandingWaveMetersandNetworkAnalyzers 476
TemperatureSensors 101 Millimeter-WaveMeasurement 496
Thermistors 122
Thermocouples 129
Thermopiles 135 MECHANICALVARIABLES 509
Accelerometers 147
Tachometers 163 DisplacementMeasurement 509
Fiber-OpticSensors 178 Velocimeters 521
UltravioletDetectors 199 AccelerationMeasurement 535
ChemicalSensors 207 DensityMeasurement 546
IntelligentBiosensors 222 LevelMeters 557
Flowmeters 568
Dynamometers 580
SIGNALCONDITIONING 241 Torquemeters 587
Weighing 596
InstrumentationAmplifiers 241 Gravimeters 607
CurrentShunts 252 Viscometers 611
CurrentTransformers 259 Compasses 624
InstrumentTransformers 266 Goniometers 635
Gyroscopes 644
Hygrometers 666
GENERAL-PURPOSEINSTRUMENTATION Pyrometers 680
ANDMEASUREMENT 277 AcousticVariablesMeasurement 688
Multimeters 277
DigitalMultimeters 286 TIME,FREQUENCY,ANDPHASE 697
Ohmmeters 291
Electrometers 293 FrequencyandTimeIntervalMeters 697
Balances 301 FrequencyStandards,Characterization 707
BridgeInstruments 309 FrequencyStability 715
Oscilloscopes 326 PhaseMeters 721
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vi CONTENTS
TimeMeasurement 733 ThinFilmAnalyzers 931
ClocksInTelecommunications 743 Radiometry 937
NOISEANDDISTORTION 759 INTERFEROMETERSANDSPECTROMETERS 947
ElectricNoiseMeasurement 759 Interferometers 947
ElectricDistortionMeasurement 771 AcousticWaveInterferometers 957
IntermodulationMeasurement 778 MassSpectrometers 964
MeasurementofFrequency,PhaseNoise
andAmplitudeNoise 793
MICROSCOPY 971
POWERANDENERGY 809 ElectronMicroscopes 971
X-RayMicroscopy 995
PowerMeasurement 809
PowerMeters 826
Wattmeters 840 DATAACQUISITIONANDRECORDING 1013
Volt-AmpereMeters 848
PowerFactorMeasurement 855 Radiotelemetry 1013
ElectricalEnergyMeasurement 867 DataRecording 1026
WatthourMeters 874 Recorders 1035
INSTRUMENTATIONFORCHEMISTRY TESTINGMETHODS 1053
ANDPHYSICS 885
EddyCurrentTesting 1053
Photometers 885 EddyCurrentNondestructiveEvaluation 1062
PhotometricLightSources 892 ImpulseTesting 1075
pHMeasurementandControl 900
PulseHeightAnalyzers 915
ScintillationCounters 919 INDEX 1083
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PREFACE
“Measurementistheheartofallscience,engineering,andtech- volume.The97articlesappearinghereinaredrawnfromthe
nology.” Thus wrote Peter K. Stein, a measurement engineer Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering.
andeducator,severaldecadesago. TheyarechosentogiveabroadrepresentationofI&M,butwith
Anditistrue.Beginningsome5000yearsagowiththeestab- therealizationthatmostoftheothertopicsinthefullencyclo-
lishmentofmeasurementstandards—importanttotrade,gov- pedia remain in some relationship with I&M, either affected
ernment,work,andreligion—andcontinuingpastthelastfew byitorhavingsomeimportantcontributiontothisfascinating
centuries B.C.E., when primitive instruments were developed field.
formeasuringtime,thisnowvastandall-importantfieldofin- The articles contained within are grouped into topical cat-
strumentationandmeasurement(I&M)gotitskickstartduring egories selected to help you navigate this volume. Of course,
thesixteenthcenturywithwhatcanbeconsideredthebirthof therearesomearticlesthatmightcomfortablyfitwithinmore
experimental science. The eighteenth and following centuries thanonecategory,and,likewise,thereareoccasionsinwhich
have seen great progress in science and engineering in gen- articles from two or more categories are closely related. We
eral and I&M in particular. The development of electronics hopethat,giventhetableofcontents,theindex,andyourown
andcomputershasallowedverysophisticated—andrelatively curiosity, it will be reasonably easy to make the appropriate
easy-to-use—instruments to be designed. These instruments, connections.
whencoupledwiththeingenuityofcarefulandcleverinvesti- Physicists, chemists, mathematicians, statisticians, com-
gators, have in turn led to the ability to make very accurate, puter scientists, a variety of scientists from other disciplines,
precise, important measurements of sometimes-very-hard- engineersofvarioustypes,talentedtechnicians,andothers—
to-accessquantities,bothmacroscopicandmicroscopic. manyhave,eitherdirectlyorindirectly,madecontributionsto
What do I&M systems do? They measure physical quanti- I&M.Itisourhopethatthissurveyvolumewillindeedprovea
ties,suchastemperature,pressure,voltage,andcurrent.They significantaidasyoumakeuseof—andperhapsyourowncon-
locate events and objects. They count things. They discrimi- tributions to—this diverse, exciting, and continually growing
nate based on one or more parameters. The need for I&M is field.
everywhere.Everyoneusesit.
Indeed,thenumberandsheerbreadthofapplicationsmake
it challenging to give coverage to such a field within a single STEPHEN A.DYER
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