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Wiley Survey of Instrumentation and Measurement PDF

1096 Pages·2001·17.744 MB·English
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P1:GEM/FYX P2:GEM/FYX QC:GEM/UKS T1:GEM WL017-FM WL017-Dyer March29,2001 11:11 CharCount=0 P1:GEM/FYX P2:GEM/FYX QC:GEM/UKS T1:GEM WL017-FM WL017-Dyer March29,2001 11:11 CharCount=0 SURVEY OF INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT P1:GEM/FYX P2:GEM/FYX QC:GEM/UKS T1:GEM WL017-FM WL017-Dyer March29,2001 11:11 CharCount=0 P1:GEM/FYX P2:GEM/FYX QC:GEM/UKS T1:GEM WL017-FM WL017-Dyer March29,2001 11:11 CharCount=0 SURVEY OF INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT Stephen A. Dyer,Editor Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Kansas State University John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York/Chichester/Weinheim/Brisbane/Singapore/Toronto P1:GEM/FYX P2:GEM/FYX QC:GEM/UKS T1:GEM WL017-FM WL017-Dyer March29,2001 11:11 CharCount=0 (cid:2) ∞ Thisbookisprintedonacid-freepaper. Copyright(cid:2)c 2001byJohnWiley&Sons.Allrightsreserved. PublishedsimultaneouslyinCanada. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmittedinany formorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,scanningorotherwise, exceptaspermittedunderSections107or108ofthe1976UnitedStatesCopyrightAct,without eitherthepriorwrittenpermissionofthePublisher,orauthorizationthroughpaymentofthe appropriateper-copyfeetotheCopyrightClearanceCenter,222RosewoodDrive,Danvers,MA 01923,(978)750-8400,fax(978)750-4744.RequeststothePublisherforpermissionshouldbe addressedtothePermissionsDepartment,JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,605ThirdAvenue,NewYork, NY10158-0012,(212)850-6011,fax(212)850-6008,E-Mail:[email protected]. Fororderingandcustomerservice,call1-800-CALL-WILEY. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData: Surveyofinstrumentationandmeasurement/StephenA.Dyer,editor. p. cm. ArticlesselectedfromtheWileyencyclopediaofelectricalandelectronicsengineering. Includesindex. ISBN0-471-39484-X(cloth:alk.paper) 1.Mensuration. 2.Measuringinstruments. 3.Electricmeters. I.Dyer,StephenA. T50.S89 2001 681(cid:3).2—dc21 00-068602 PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 P1:GEM/FYX P2:GEM/FYX QC:GEM/UKS T1:GEM WL017-FM WL017-Dyer March29,2001 11:11 CharCount=0 CONTENTS PREFACE vii ELECTRICALVARIABLES 339 INTRODUCTION ix ChargeMeasurement 339 ElectricCurrentMeasurement 343 INSTRUMENTATIONANDMEASUREMENT— InductanceMeasurement 347 INTRODUCTORY 1 CapacitanceMeasurement 358 Q-FactorMeasurement 372 Instruments 1 Q-Meters 387 MeasurementErrors 14 AutomaticTestEquipment 25 ELECTROMAGNETICVARIABLES 397 SENSORSANDTRANSDUCERS 37 ElectricStrength 397 ElectromagneticFieldMeasurement 401 ElectricSensingDevices 37 MagneticFieldMeasurement 410 MagneticSensors 46 AttenuationMeasurement 422 HallEffectTransducers 60 Loss-AngleMeasurement 439 PressureSensors 71 WavelengthMeter 452 PiezoresistiveDevices 84 Reflectometers,Time-Domain 467 StrainSensors 87 StandingWaveMetersandNetworkAnalyzers 476 TemperatureSensors 101 Millimeter-WaveMeasurement 496 Thermistors 122 Thermocouples 129 Thermopiles 135 MECHANICALVARIABLES 509 Accelerometers 147 Tachometers 163 DisplacementMeasurement 509 Fiber-OpticSensors 178 Velocimeters 521 UltravioletDetectors 199 AccelerationMeasurement 535 ChemicalSensors 207 DensityMeasurement 546 IntelligentBiosensors 222 LevelMeters 557 Flowmeters 568 Dynamometers 580 SIGNALCONDITIONING 241 Torquemeters 587 Weighing 596 InstrumentationAmplifiers 241 Gravimeters 607 CurrentShunts 252 Viscometers 611 CurrentTransformers 259 Compasses 624 InstrumentTransformers 266 Goniometers 635 Gyroscopes 644 Hygrometers 666 GENERAL-PURPOSEINSTRUMENTATION Pyrometers 680 ANDMEASUREMENT 277 AcousticVariablesMeasurement 688 Multimeters 277 DigitalMultimeters 286 TIME,FREQUENCY,ANDPHASE 697 Ohmmeters 291 Electrometers 293 FrequencyandTimeIntervalMeters 697 Balances 301 FrequencyStandards,Characterization 707 BridgeInstruments 309 FrequencyStability 715 Oscilloscopes 326 PhaseMeters 721 v P1:GEM/FYX P2:GEM/FYX QC:GEM/UKS T1:GEM WL017-FM WL017-Dyer March29,2001 11:11 CharCount=0 vi CONTENTS TimeMeasurement 733 ThinFilmAnalyzers 931 ClocksInTelecommunications 743 Radiometry 937 NOISEANDDISTORTION 759 INTERFEROMETERSANDSPECTROMETERS 947 ElectricNoiseMeasurement 759 Interferometers 947 ElectricDistortionMeasurement 771 AcousticWaveInterferometers 957 IntermodulationMeasurement 778 MassSpectrometers 964 MeasurementofFrequency,PhaseNoise andAmplitudeNoise 793 MICROSCOPY 971 POWERANDENERGY 809 ElectronMicroscopes 971 X-RayMicroscopy 995 PowerMeasurement 809 PowerMeters 826 Wattmeters 840 DATAACQUISITIONANDRECORDING 1013 Volt-AmpereMeters 848 PowerFactorMeasurement 855 Radiotelemetry 1013 ElectricalEnergyMeasurement 867 DataRecording 1026 WatthourMeters 874 Recorders 1035 INSTRUMENTATIONFORCHEMISTRY TESTINGMETHODS 1053 ANDPHYSICS 885 EddyCurrentTesting 1053 Photometers 885 EddyCurrentNondestructiveEvaluation 1062 PhotometricLightSources 892 ImpulseTesting 1075 pHMeasurementandControl 900 PulseHeightAnalyzers 915 ScintillationCounters 919 INDEX 1083 P1:GEM/FYX P2:GEM/FYX QC:GEM/UKS T1:GEM WL017-FM WL017-Dyer March29,2001 11:11 CharCount=0 PREFACE “Measurementistheheartofallscience,engineering,andtech- volume.The97articlesappearinghereinaredrawnfromthe nology.” Thus wrote Peter K. Stein, a measurement engineer Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. andeducator,severaldecadesago. TheyarechosentogiveabroadrepresentationofI&M,butwith Anditistrue.Beginningsome5000yearsagowiththeestab- therealizationthatmostoftheothertopicsinthefullencyclo- lishmentofmeasurementstandards—importanttotrade,gov- pedia remain in some relationship with I&M, either affected ernment,work,andreligion—andcontinuingpastthelastfew byitorhavingsomeimportantcontributiontothisfascinating centuries B.C.E., when primitive instruments were developed field. formeasuringtime,thisnowvastandall-importantfieldofin- The articles contained within are grouped into topical cat- strumentationandmeasurement(I&M)gotitskickstartduring egories selected to help you navigate this volume. Of course, thesixteenthcenturywithwhatcanbeconsideredthebirthof therearesomearticlesthatmightcomfortablyfitwithinmore experimental science. The eighteenth and following centuries thanonecategory,and,likewise,thereareoccasionsinwhich have seen great progress in science and engineering in gen- articles from two or more categories are closely related. We eral and I&M in particular. The development of electronics hopethat,giventhetableofcontents,theindex,andyourown andcomputershasallowedverysophisticated—andrelatively curiosity, it will be reasonably easy to make the appropriate easy-to-use—instruments to be designed. These instruments, connections. whencoupledwiththeingenuityofcarefulandcleverinvesti- Physicists, chemists, mathematicians, statisticians, com- gators, have in turn led to the ability to make very accurate, puter scientists, a variety of scientists from other disciplines, precise, important measurements of sometimes-very-hard- engineersofvarioustypes,talentedtechnicians,andothers— to-accessquantities,bothmacroscopicandmicroscopic. manyhave,eitherdirectlyorindirectly,madecontributionsto What do I&M systems do? They measure physical quanti- I&M.Itisourhopethatthissurveyvolumewillindeedprovea ties,suchastemperature,pressure,voltage,andcurrent.They significantaidasyoumakeuseof—andperhapsyourowncon- locate events and objects. They count things. They discrimi- tributions to—this diverse, exciting, and continually growing nate based on one or more parameters. The need for I&M is field. everywhere.Everyoneusesit. Indeed,thenumberandsheerbreadthofapplicationsmake it challenging to give coverage to such a field within a single STEPHEN A.DYER vii P1:GEM/FYX P2:GEM/FYX QC:GEM/UKS T1:GEM WL017-FM WL017-Dyer March29,2001 11:11 CharCount=0

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