When English language learners write : connecting research to practice, K-8

212 Pages·2006·9.253 MB·English

by  Katharine Davies Samway

When English Language
Learners Write
Connecting Research
to Practice, K-8
Katharine Davies Samway
HEINEMANN
Portsmouth, NE1
Heinemann
A division of Reed Elsevier Inc.
361 Hanover Street
Portsmouth, NH 03801-3912
www.heinemann.com
Offices and agents throughout the world
© 2006 by Katharine Davies Samway
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical
means, including information storage and retrieval systems, without permission in writing from the publisher,
except by a reviewer, who may quote brief passages in a review.
The author and publisher wish to thank those who have generously given permission to reprint borrowed material:
Figures 1.1 and 1.2: from Hayes, John R. (2000).11A New Framework for Understanding Cognition and Affect in
Writing.” In Perspectives on Writing: Research, Theory, and Practice, Roselmina Indrisano & James R. Squire,
Editors. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Chapter 1, 6-44- Reprinted with permission.
Figures 2.2 and 2.3: from Language Stories & Literacy Lessons by J. Harste, V. Woodward, and C. Burke. Copyright
© 1984. Published by Heinemann, a division of Reed Elsevier, Inc. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Figures 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, and 2.8: from Hoyt, L. (1993). “How Do They Learn to Read and Write? Literacy
Instruction in a Refugee Camp.” In K. Davies Samway & D. McKeon (Eds.), Common Threads of Practice.
Teaching English to Children Around the World. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other
Languages, pp. 72-76. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Figures 2.11 and 2.12: from Taylor, D. M. “Writing and Reading Literature in a Second Language.” In Workshop
2: Beyond the Basal, edited by Nancie Atwell. Copyright © 1990 by Heinemann. Published by Heinemann,
a division of Reed Elsevier, Inc. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Figure 2.13: from Heald-Taylor, G. (1986). “Writing Development of One ESL Student.” In Whole Language
Strategies for ESL Students, ed. G. Heald-Taylor. Toronto, Canada: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education,
pp. 50-55. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Figures 3.1 and 3.2: From Serna, I., and Hudelson, S. “Emergent Spanish Literacy in a Whole Language Bilingual
Classroom.” In At-Risk Students: Portraits, Policies, Programs and Practices, ed. by R. Donmoyer and R. Kos.
Copyright © 1993. Published by State University of New York Press. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Figures 4.1 and 4.2: from Turn up the Volume and SingAbng with Pedro by Mary Jane Nations. Copyright © 1990
by Mary Jane Nations. Reprinted by permission of the author.
Figure 7.L from McCarthey, S. J., Garda, G. E., Lopez-Velasquez, A. M., Lin, S., and Guo, Y.-H. (2004).
“Understanding Writing Contexts for English Language Learners.” In Research in the Teaching of English, 38
(4), 351-394. Copyright 2004 by the National Council of Teachers of English. Reprinted with permission.
Figure 7.6: from Smith, K., Espinosa, C., Aragon, E., Osorio, R., and Ulloa, N. (2004). Reconceptualizing Writing
Workshop in a Dual Language Program. Reprinted by permission.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Samway, Katharine Davies.
When English language learners write : connecting research to practice, K-8 / Katharine Davies
Samway.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-325-00633-4 (alk. paper)
1. English language—Study and teaching (Elementary)—Foreign speakers. 2. English language—
Study and teaching (Middle school)—Foreign speakers. 3. English language—Study and teach¬
ing—Research. 4. English language—Composition and exercises—Research. 5. Children—
Language—Research. I. Title.
PE1128.A2S26 2006
808' .04280712—dc22 " 2005030150
Editor: Lois Bridges
Production coordinator: Elizabeth Valway
Production service: Denise A. Botelho
Cover design: Lisa Fowler
About the cover: Cover photograph of]ohn David V., a fourth grader at Runn Elementary School in Donna, Texas
Cover photograph: Julie Farias
Composition: Argosy Publishing
Manufacturing: Louise Richardson
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 09 08 07 06 RRD 2 3 4 5
Contents
Acknowledgments
Introduction ^
Chapter 1: A Brief History of Writing Research 2
Writing Research: A Focus on the Product 1
Beginning to Focus on the Cognitive Processes Involved When Writing 3
Writing Research: Focus on the Writer/Writing Processes 4
A Social-Behavioral View of the Writing Process 14
A Sociocognitive Model of Writing 15
The Intersection of Writing, Sociocultural Factors, and Politics 17
Writing Research: What Now? 1§
Implications of the Research for Teachers of Writing 20
Chapter 2: Core Research About the Writing of Children Who Are ELLs 21
What Does the Term Writing Refer To? 22
Young Children’s Awareness of Functions of Print 22
Oral Language/Writing Connections 26
English Language Learners Can Write Before
Orally Mastering the English Language 28
ELL Children Can Express Complex Thoughts and
Emotions in Less Than Fluent English 30
ELL Children’s Writing Is Developmental and Isn’t Necessarily Linear 38
Knowledge of Writing Conventions May Be
Transferred from the LI to English 46
Being Taught to Write in the Native Language Is an Asset 47
ELLs Can Write in Both the Native and Nonnative
Languages Without Being Confused 48
Similarities and Differences in Children’s Writing
in English and Other Languages 50
ELL Children Evaluating Writing 52
Prior Literacy Experiences May Affect How ELLs
Respond to New Literacy Experiences 54
Implications of the Research for Teachers of Writing 58
iii
Contents
Chapter 3: Sketches of English Language Learners Becoming Writers 61
Cecilia and Diana: Writing Development of Bilingual
Kindergarten and First Graders 61
Alexis: A Struggling Second Grade Writer 66
Roberto and Janice: Different Responses to
Invitations to Write Authentically 74
What Do These Sketches Tell Us About ELL Writers? 77
Implications of the Research for Teachers of Writing 77
Chapter 4: Qender, Race, Ethnicity, Social Class, and Writing 79
The Influence of Gender on Children’s Writing 81
The Influence of Ethnicity and Race on Writing 84
Social Class, Socioeconomic Status, and Writing 94
Implications of the Research for Teachers of Writing 100
Chapter 5: Reading/Writing Connections 101
Focusing on the Craft of Writing Needn’t Destroy the Reading Experience 102
Ways in Which Reading and Writing Are Connected 103
The Influence of Reading on Writing 109
Implications of the Research for Teachers of Writing 122
Chapter 6: Reflective Writing 125
Incorporating Reflective Writing in the Classroom 125
The Role of Reflective Writing in Language and Literacy Development 138
Journals as a Record of Experiences 138
Reflective Writing Supporting ELLs 139
Implications of the Research for Teachers of Writing 148
Chapter 7: The Influence of the Environment on Children’s Writing 150
One ESOL Teacher Who Established a Workshop
Approach to Literacy Learning 151
Influence of School and Community Writing Experiences on Children 152
Influence of School Experiences on the Writing of ELLs:
An International Perspective 155
Influence of School Experiences on the Writing of ELLs in the United States 157
Influence of the Environment on Children Writing Bilingually 163
What Do ELLs Need to Become Successful Writers? 167
What Type of Writing Program Is Best for ELLs? 169
Implications of the Research for Teachers of Writing 177
Revisiting the Survey 178
References 180
Children’s and Young Adult Literature 191
Index 192
iv
Acknowledgments
I have had the extreme good fortune over the past two decades to have had stimulat-
ing conversations about teaching writing with many classroom and ESOL (English to
Speakers of Other Language) teachers throughout the country. I value the many vis-
its I have made to their classrooms, often for extended periods of time. Especially big
thank you’s go to Laura Alvarez, Susan Atencio, Angie Barra, Laurel Cress, Yolanda
Dandridge, Audrey Fong, Joan Hagan, Michael Hagan, Jen Klem, Denise Leograndis,
Kathy Maloney, Jennifer Jones-Martinez, Kathy Morgan, Mary Pippitt, Sonny Kim,
Rachel Rothman, Barbara Schmidt, Choji Schroeder, Lydia Stack, Dorothy Taylor,
Pam Webber, Gail Whang, Bernadette Whitman, Beverly Wilkin, and Siu-Mui Woo.
They welcomed me into their classrooms, where I learned a great deal from observing
them at work, from working with their students, and from the many rich conversa-
tions we have had. Other teachers have been very generous in bringing samples of
their students’ writing (and, sometimes, their own writing) for us to talk about,
including Teresa Brandes, Sonia Davis, Leila Karzian-Banos, Maya Goetz, Heather
Juhl, and Mingming Zhang. I value those occasions, also.
My interest in the writing processes of English language learners was fostered
many years ago by two fine researchers and friends, Sarah Hudelson and Carole
Urzua. With their example to guide me and their long-distance support to sustain me,
I first embarked on research into the writing processes of English language learners
(ELLs). Theirs has been a long-standing gift that I continue to treasure.
I knew that writing a book like this would involve an incredible amount of library
and Internet searching. I couldn’t have completed the book without the very able
assistance of Melinda Nettles, who located and tracked down references with good
humor, patience, and ingenuity. I have also appreciated her emails inquiring about
the book long after she had ended her stint as a research assistant. Those notes of
encouragement did just that, and were a true gift. I am also very grateful to Lorene
Sisson and Sue Kendall, librarians at my university, who were very helpful in navi¬
gating various research search tools and in locating research articles.
An editor can make a huge difference to a writer, and I feel very lucky to have
been working with Lois Bridges all these months. She has a gift for coming into the
foreground at just the right time and with just the right advice. I am also indebted to
v
Acknowledgments
Karen York for her invaluable assistance in getting permissions to reproduce some of
the figures in the book. In addition, I am grateful for the considerable expertise that
Denise Botelho, Amy Rowe, and Elizabeth Valway brought to turning my manuscript
into this book.
Lucinda (Cindy) Pease-Alvarez is a wonderful friend and colleague, whom I met
when I moved from western New York State to Oakland, California. We have worked
together now for almost twenty years, years that I value beyond description. With
regard to this book, I am particularly grateful for her careful, thoughtful and informed
reading of draft chapters, and for steering me to some invaluable research and
resources. Her friendship and the many stimulating conversations we have had over
the years about literacy, language, English language learners, mandates, policies, and
teaching continue to sustain me.
Tom Samway has been a constant support. He, more than anyone, knows how
important this book is to me and how long I have been planning and working on it,
and he has supported me from long before I ever wrote a word. If I hadn’t heeded his
queries about my progress, I may never have completed the book—as many people
know, it can be easier to locate and read articles and books than it is to write, even
when one finds writing satisfying.
vi
Introduction
When educators refer to English language learners (ELLs) and writing, it is not
uncommon to hear deficit views and myths, including the following:
• They can’t write.
• They have writing problems.
• They are reluctant writers.
• They need to be taught the skills of writing before being asked to write
independently.
It is true that the writing of anyone who is new to a language is likely to be different
from that of native speakers. Also, the nonnative writer may find it more daunting to
write in the nonnative language than the native language. However, with time and
stimulating, purposeful writing experiences, ELLs can become effective writers, as
much of the research reported on later in the book illustrates.
We are fortunate to have many excellent professional books that address the
teaching of writing to K-8 children (e.g., Anderson 2000; Atwell 1998; Avery 1993,
2002; Calkins 1986, 1994; Fletcher 1996a, 1996b; Harvey 1998; Heard 1989; Por-
talupi and Fletcher 2001; Ray 1999, 2001) and, although they focus on English-
speaking children, many of us who teach ELLs have found them to be very useful and
inspiring. In contrast with these books, my book is an attempt to fill a gap, to explore
writing research on ELLs, and to make connections from this body of research to the
practice of teaching writing to ELLs.
I hope that this book supports the many educators (preservice and practicing
teachers, administrators, teacher educators, and others) who would like ELL students
to have a positive experience with writing, while becoming more skilled, effective
writers. I hope my book will contribute to helping ensure that all learners, particular¬
ly ELL students, have positive, stimulating, and satisfying school-based experiences
with writing.
vii
Introduction
An Overview of the Rest of the Book
We have at our disposal considerable research by university-based researchers as well
as classroom teachers that has yielded tremendous knowledge about writing and writ¬
ing processes. In the remaining chapters, the following topics will be explored:
• A historical overview of writing research, including a move from looking at
only the product (the writing itself), to investigating learners’ writing proc¬
esses and the intersection of sociocultural factors and writing (Chapter 1).
• Core research about the writing of ELLs, including young children’s aware¬
ness of print, oral language/writing connections, what ELLs can do as
writers before they become fluent in English, and the role of the native
language in their writing development (Chapter 2).
• An in-depth look at the writing development of five ELLs that illustrates
key understandings about the writing and writing processes of ELLs
(Chapter 3).
• Ways in which gender, race, ethnicity, and social class intersect with writ¬
ing, including how literacy practices in nonmainstream cultures may be
overlooked and misunderstood by teachers from the dominant culture
(Chapter 4).
• How reading and writing are interconnected processes, how what children
read influences their writing, and ways of fostering reading/writing connec¬
tions (Chapter 5).
• Reflective writing (e.g., logs and dialogue journals), including how reflec¬
tive writing supports ELLs and ways of incorporating it into the classroom
(Chapter 6).
• How the environment in which ELLs are placed affects their writing,
including the impact of adult expectations, the influence of school-based
writing experiences, the role of a bilingual environment, and current devel¬
opments in writing pedagogy (Chapter 7).
viii