Table Of Content‘This is the book I wish I had written, synthesizing an enormous literature focused on special needs students.
It is robust, it is readable, and it is your right-hand resource. A stunner of a book.’
–Professor John Hattie, University of Melbourne, author of Visible Learning
‘A timely and useful resource for those committed to adopting an inclusive pedagogical approach, this book
presents a compendium of evidence-based strategies to support inclusive education.’
–Professor Lani Florian, University of Edinburgh
‘Deserves to have widespread influence on theory, research and professional practice. The book is scholarly,
practical and accessible and it definitely sharpened my understanding of the contemporary evidence on many
topics in special and inclusive education. I hope, for students’ sake, that the book reaches a very wide and
varied audience.’
–Emeritus Professor Tony Shaddock, University of Canberra
‘An excellent reader and reference book for teachers, students and researchers of education. Summarizing a
large amount of up-to-date research findings, it lays out an evidence base for the most effective practices for
teaching students with special educational needs. Interestingly, most of the approaches can be used by all
teachers – a good reminder of the inclusive idea that all children benefit from improving the quality of
teaching and learning.’
–Professor Hannu Savolainen, University of Eastern Finland
‘This systematic review of evidence-based methods of teaching is an excellent resource book for the library of
special and general educators.’
–Emeritus Professor Gunnar Stangvik, The Arctic University of Norway
‘What Really Works is a text that all teachers can rely on, with its excellent summary of methods and practices
that have proven to be successful, not only with students with special needs, but with all young people.’
–Professor Ragnar Thygesen, Agder University, Norway
‘This wide-ranging book looks at evidence-based practical aspects of what really works in special and inclusive
education. Having included this book as one of the core readings for my undergraduate and graduate
programmes in several cultures, I can comfortably assert that this is a must-read book for all teachers-to-be
and their trainers.’
–Associate Professor Filiz Polat, Bahçeşehir University, Turkey
‘David Mitchell has updated and added new chapters to the second edition, making it more comprehensive
while maintaining its readability. Teachers, students and others working in the fields of inclusive and special
education will find it an invaluable source of accessible information about research-based strategies for
intervention.’
–Professor Garry Hornby, University of Canterbury, New Zealand
‘This text provides an excellent and evidence-based collection of good ideas, effective strategies and
comprehensive programmes. They are scientific, scholarly, practical and informative for teachers, education
researchers and all those professionals who support the learning of students with special education needs and
promote the culture of inclusion in various settings of schooling.’
–Associate Professor Ming Tak Hue, Hong Kong Institute of Education
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‘This book gives useful and important suggestions to build up reasonable accom moda tions for children with
educational needs and collaborations with related organizations and schools in Japan.’
–Professor Toshiro Ochiai, Hiroshima University
3
What Really Works in Special and Inclusive Education
As teachers around the world deal with the challenges of inclusive education, they must find effective ways of
enhancing their classroom teaching methods. What Really Works in Special and Inclusive Education presents
teachers with a range of evidence-based strategies they can immediately put into practice in their classrooms.
This unique book will be an invaluable resource for educators who may not have the time or the inclination to
engage with theory-heavy research, but who wish to ensure that their teaching strategies are up-to-the-minute
and proven to be the most effective best practices. Each of the twenty-seven strategies that this book
comprises has a substantial research base, a strong theoretical rationale and clear guidelines on their
implementation, as well as cautionary advice where necessary.
In this second edition, David Mitchell, a leading writer in special and inclusive education, continues to break
new ground with revised and updated strategies based on evidence from the most recent studies in the field.
From the myriad of related research available, only those studies with genuine potential for improving the
practices of teachers and schools have been included, with the aim of facilitating high-quality learning and
social outcomes for all learners in schools.
Updates to this new edition include:
four new chapters, on response to intervention, universal design for learning, interagency cooperation
and one on the Finnish education system;
over 350 new references;
an even wider international focus, including evidence drawn from Asia;
references to recent developments in neuroscience;
a new companion website, with extra case studies, links to further reading, journal articles and videos,
and an interactive quiz.
This book is essential reading for anyone with a vocational or academic interest in evidence-based special
educational needs teaching strategies, whether a student in initial teacher education or a qualified classroom
teacher, teacher educator, educational psychologist, special needs coordinator, consultant or researcher.
David Mitchell is an Adjunct Professor in the College of Education, University of Canterbury, Christchurch,
New Zealand, and a consultant in inclusive education.
4
What Really Works in Special and Inclusive
Education
Using evidence-based teaching strategies
Second edition
David Mitchell
5
Second edition published 2014
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2014 David Mitchell
The right of David Mitchell to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance
with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any
electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only
for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2008
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Mitchell, David.
What really works in special and inclusive education: using evidence-based teaching strategies / David
Mitchell. — Second edition.
pages cm
Includes index.
1. Special education. 2. Inclusive education. 3. Classroom management. 4. Teaching. I. Title.
LC3965.M58 2014
371.9—dc23
2013025437
ISBN: 978–0–415–62322–3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978–0–415–62323–0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978–0–203–10531–3 (ebk)
Typeset in Akzidenz Grotesk and Eurostile by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK
6
For my mother,
Adelaide Margaret (Addie) Mitchell
(1918–2006)
7
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 A learning and teaching model
Chapter 3 Strategy 1: Cooperative group teaching: ‘Help learners to learn from each other’
Chapter 4 Strategy 2: Peer tutoring and peer influences: ‘Utilize peers to teach and support each other’
Chapter 5 Strategy 3: Social skills training: ‘Teach learners how to positively interact with others’
Chapter 6 Strategy 4: Collaborative teaching: ‘Become an effective team player’
Chapter 7 Strategy 5: Parent involvement and support: ‘Respect families’ rights, skills and needs’
Chapter 8 Strategy 6: Cognitive strategy instruction: ‘Teach learners ways of thinking’
Chapter 9 Strategy 7: Self-regulated learning: ‘Help learners take control of their own learning’
Chapter 10Strategy 8: Memory strategies: ‘Help learners to remember important information’
Chapter 11Strategy 9: Review and practice: ‘Practice makes perfect’
Chapter 12Strategy 10: Reciprocal teaching: ‘Help learners understand what they read’
Chapter 13Strategy 11: Behavioural approaches: ‘Control antecedents and consequences to change
behaviours’
Chapter 14Strategy 12: Functional behavioural assessment: ‘Change problem behaviours by changing their
antecedents and consequences’
Chapter 15Strategy 13: Cognitive behavioural therapy: ‘Help learners change their negative thinking’
Chapter 16Strategy 14: Direct instruction: ‘Make lessons highly structured, briskly paced and successful’
Chapter 17Strategy 15: Formative assessment and feedback: ‘Regularly check and inform learners of their
progress’
Chapter 18Strategy 16: Assistive technology: ‘Enhance learners’ skills’
Chapter 19Strategy 17: Augmentative and alternative communication: ‘Utilize all means to develop
communication skills’
Chapter 20Strategy 18: Phonological awareness and phonological processing: ‘Use a sound reading strategy’
Chapter 21Strategy 19: Quality of the indoor physical environment: ‘Provide a physical environment that
enables learning’
Chapter 22Strategy 20: Universal design for learning: ‘Ensure all learners always have access to all aspects of
learning’
Chapter 23Strategy 21: Response to intervention: ‘Employ a gradation of evidence-based interventions to
take account of the extent of individual needs’
Chapter 24Strategy 22: Classroom climate: ‘Create a safe, positive and motivating classroom environment’
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Chapter 25Strategy 23: School-wide strategies: ‘Create a multi-tiered system to prevent or minimize
problem behaviours’
23.1: School culture
23.2: School-wide positive behaviour support
23.3: Success for all
Chapter 26Strategy 24: Inter-agency cooperation: ‘Move from fragmented to coordinated services’
24.1: Wraparound intervention
24.2: Full-service schools
Chapter 27Strategy 25: Inclusive education: ‘Adapt the classroom programme to suit all learners’
Chapter 28Strategy 26: Case study of an education system: Finland
Chapter 29Strategy 27: Opportunities to learn: ‘Provide sufficient quantity and quality of time for learning’
Index
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Preface
In most countries, children are required to spend 10–15,000 hours in learning spaces we call ‘schools’ and
‘classrooms’. During that significant period of their development they will interact with their families and with
many educators and peers, as well as with a large range of learning materials and be exposed to many different
teaching strategies.
For these experiences to yield effective learning it is essential that the physical and psychological
environments we create are safe, challenging and educative. It is essential that they ensure that all children
actually learn what is expected of them, that their education contributes to enhancing their quality of life, that
they achieve a balance between independence and interdependence, and that they are prepared to lead full and
satisfying lives as citizens and as members of their cultures. In this journey, they have a right to expect that
educators who employ the best available, evidence-based teaching strategies guide their education.
These challenges are no less important for those children who, for a variety of reasons, we consider to have
special educational needs and who face significant barriers to their learning and development. These children
comprise perhaps ten to fifteen per cent of the school population. Their special needs arise from diverse
factors: sensory, physical, intellectual and emotional. They are expressed in difficulties in making academic
progress in the school curriculum, in acquiring the physical and social skills appropriate to their cultures, and
in achieving a fulfilling sense of self-esteem. Their special needs range from major to minor, and they reflect
physiological or environmental factors. These children are the focus of this book, although, as you will
discover, many of the teaching strategies are universally applicable.
In this book I will describe and present the evidence and underlying ideas for a total of twenty-seven
teaching and related strategies. Some of them are to do with arranging the context of learning (e.g., inclusive
education, cooperative group teaching and the classroom climate). Another group looks at cognitive strategies
such as self-regulated learning, memory strategies and cognitive behavioural therapy. A third group focuses on
behavioural strategies such as functional assessment and direct instruction. A fourth group will look at school-
wide strategies and inter-agency cooperation. As well, consideration is given to such strategies as formative
assessment and feedback, assistive technology and opportunities to learn. I will be drawing upon research
across many different disciplines – education, psychology, health and technology – as well as diverse research
methods.
In all of these strategies I have thoroughly examined the research evidence (much of which is not readily
available to classroom educators) and have attempted to interpret it in a user-friendly manner. I am keenly
aware that in most countries the drive for stand ards and accountability means that educators are increasingly
being expected to be responsible not only for the learners’ outcomes, but also for using the most scientifically
valid methods to achieve them. I hope this book helps in this regard.
The book has its origins in several sources. First, I have drawn upon over 2000 research articles on teaching
learners with special educational needs at the primary and secondary school levels. In an endeavour to ensure
that the book is international in scope, I have included reference to studies carried out in countries as diverse
as the USA, the UK, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Cyprus, Israel,
Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, Spain and the Netherlands. Second, I have reflected on my experiences in
teacher education programmes and as a consultant in inclusive education in many countries. Third, I have
drawn upon my own research and publications.
As a result of feedback on the first edition and extensive further reading, the current edition of the book has
been significantly changed. It includes four new chapters: uni versal design for learning, response to
intervention, inter-agency cooperation, and one on the Finnish education system. Also, several chapters have
been considerably expanded to take account of new research. I have also taken the opportunity to expand the
evidence base of the book as a whole, taking account of research carried out since 2007, the close-off date for
the first edition. I have added over 350 new references, as well as augmenting the earlier references.
In approaching the task of selecting strategies for inclusion in the book, I resolved from the outset to ‘follow
the evidence’. Apart from this commitment to evidence-based teaching, I had no theoretical axe to grind and
no preconceived ideas about where the evidence might lead me. In some cases, it took me into areas that were
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