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ESSENCE BOOKS ON BUI LDING General Editor: J. H. Cheetham, A.R.I.B.A. WALLS SOME OTIIER ELBS LOW-PRICED EDITIONS Anderson MATERIALS SCIENCE Longman and Leaver Bannister and SURVEYING Pitman Raymond Blyth A GEOLOGY FOR Arnold ENGINEERS Boughton REINFORCED CONCRETE Crosby Lockwood DETAILER'S MANUAL Staples Burnside ELECTROMAGNETIC Crosby Lockwood DISTANCE Staples MEASUREMENT Case and STRENGTII OF Arnold Chilver MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES Coates, Coutie STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS Nelson and Kong Constructional STEEL DESIGNER'S Crosby Lockwood Steel Research MANUAL Staples and Development Organisation Dugdale SURVEYING Macdonald & Evans Hart ENGINEERING DRAWING Hodder & Stoughton WITH PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS Jeffrey MATIIEMATICS FOR Nelson ENGINEERS AND SCIENTISTS John INTRODUCTION TO Macmillan ENGINEERING MATERIALS Kelsey GEOMETRICAL AND Crosby Lockwood BllLDING DRAWING Staples Launder FOUNDATIONS Macmillan Marshall STRUCTURES Pitman Morley THEORY OF Longman STRUCTURES Owen ROOFS Macmillan Ryder STRENGTH OF Macmillan MATERIALS, Third Edition Smith CONSTRUCTION Longman SCIENCE Smith SOIL MECHANICS Macdonald & Evans WALLS Robert Fisher, Dip!. Arch. (U.C.L.), R.I.B.A. Senior Lecturer, School of Environmental Studies, University College London [ff0 0\!J Macmillan Education © Robert Fisher 1972 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission. First edition 1972 Reprinted (with corrections) 1975 ELBS edition first published 1975 Published by THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD London and Basingstoke Associated companies in New York Dublin Melbourne Johannesburg and Madras SBN 333 13557 1 (Macmillan edition) 333 19290 7 (ELBS edition) ISBN 978-1-349-01506-1 ISBN 978-1-349-01504-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-01504-7 The paperback edition of this book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent, in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition includ ing this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser. Preface This volume on walls has been prepared so as to avoid as far as possible descriptions of wall constructions in the traditional sense. Information on this aspect of the subject is readily available in construction text books, papers, Codes of Practice and published detail sheets. The emphasis has been placed primarily on the performance of walls of different types and materials so that students may begin to understand the probable consequences of the decisions they make concerning materials and methods of construction. Furthermore, this volume deals with the use and performance of materials and assemblies which at the present time predominate in practice and will continue to do so for many years. Information has been brought together from a wide variety of different sources. Though less exhaustive in detail than that provided at the sources, its usefulness may be greater for those concerned with design by giving an overall rather than a highly specialized view of the subject. The first chapter is proportionately large because it is used to present certain basic general principles which relate walls to buildings as a whole. It describes how they participate structurally and environmentally and deals with dimensional variabilities, the implications of construction processes and the principles underlying standards in relation to fire resistance. Codes and regulations are the means by which acceptable standards of performance are achieved. The reasons for their existence are explained and frequent references to them are made in the text. It has been clearly impossible to reproduce them in this volume and the reader is advised to refer whenever necessary * particularly to Building Regulations, 1965, and Code of Practice No. III : 1964. Subsequent chapters deal with the characteristics of walls of particular materials. Wherever it has been appropriate to do so, these topics are dealt with in the same order as in Chapter 1. Thus, structural characteristics precede environmental performance and *Amended by Building Regulations, 1972, and Second Amendment, 1974. H.M.S.O. v these are followed by dimensional, formal and assembly aspects. In Chapter 4, the treatment is somewhat different because different materials and production methods are involved and the problems arising from their use are of a different nature. A very short chapter deals briefly with free-standing walls. These are frequently not sufficiently well-studied or understood though Elizabeth Beazley's well-known book, Design and Detail of Space between Buildings, has done much to fill the gap. Finally some photographs are provided in an appendix to illustrate some of the visual aspects of the subject. vi Contents Acknowledgements viii 1. Walls as parts of systems 1 Walls as elements in a structural system 1 Walls as elements in a system of environmental control 7 Dimensional changes and movements 26 Assembly processes 30 Fire resistance 32 2. The use of bricks and blocks 37 Strengths of bricks and brickwork 37 Environmental performance of brick, block and masonry walls 44 Dimensional changes in brick and block walls 47 Dimension, form and laying processes 52 3. The use of concrete 61 In situ concrete 61 Environmental performance 62 Dimensional stability 67 Precast concrete 69 Forms of concrete units and production methods 70 Performances of large concrete panels 72 Concrete finish and appearance 74 4. The use of prefabricated light cladding and walling materials 77 Performance and product specifications 77 Co-ordination of dimensions 79 Dimensional stability and accuracy 82 Joints between panels 90 5. Free-standing walls 95 Appendix Plates 1-1 3 101 References 114 Bibliograph 115 Index 116 vii Acknowledgements The author is indebted to many colleagues for their advice and help in preparing this short book, and to Martin Fisher for the photography. Acknowledgement is also made to the following for their permission to reproduce the material quoted: Tables 1, 2 and 3. Compiled from CP 111 : 1964. (Table 1 has been converted to metric.) Figure 12. B.R.S. Digest, 110, Oct. 1969. Figure 2. Table 6. Principles of Modern Building, Vol. 1, HMSO, p. 224. Table 16.1. Table 7. B.R.S. Digest, 96, Aug. 1968. Tables 1 and 2. Tables 13, 16 and 19. B.R.S. Digest, 108, Aug. 1969. Table 8. Table 15. B.R.S. Digest, 102, Feb. 1969. Table 1. Figure 14. B.R.S. Current Paper No. 45. Figure 11. (The material reproduced from the Building Research Station is published by permission of the Controller, HMSO and Crown copyright is reserved.) Figure ~7. B.R.S. D':f(est, 96, Aug. 1968. Figure 5. Figure 42. Architects' J., Jan. 6, 1965, p. 25. Technical Study, "Microclimate and Housing", a paper by H. C. Shellard, Meteorological Office. viii 1 Walls as parts of systems Walls as elements in a structural system Most elements in the constru.ction of a building contribute to a number of different purposes. Walls, floors and roofs are usually required to do more than just provide shelter, or divide space, or support each other. Sometimes, they perform two or three of these roles together, at the same time satisfying many other requirements. Thus, structural and environmental performances, cost, appearance, durability in use, assembly and transport, dimensional character istics, availability and the many different skills required for manufacture and assembly are all aspects of building components and elements which should be mutually compatible, as well as being appropriate to the general requirements of the building as a whole. It is for this reason that, in this volume, we relate the nature and properties of walls to those of buildings. Types and forms of structural walls Structural walls are those which make a positive contribution in a structural system. Such walls may perform this role in two ways. They may be: 1. Load-bearing walls, in which case, they must be designed to carry vertical loads in addition to their own weight. Such loads arise from floors, roofs and perhaps other structural walls, together with any live loads which these elements may carry. Loads of this kind impose direct compression stresses. 2. Stabilizing walls which are designed to resist horizontal or oblique forces resulting from wind pressure, earthquake forces, earth or water pressure, or oblique thrusts from arched structural forms. Walls serving these purposes must resist shear stresses and bending. Examples of such walls are shear walls, retaining walls, buttresses, and some types of panel wall built as an infilling to stiffen a structural framework. F or these basic structural purposes, walls may take one of several structural forms: (I) they may consist of blocks or bricks laid in mortar and arranged to avoid vertical planar continuity of joints which might otherwise become the locus of cracking and structural weakness, Fig.l(a). (2) They may be formed from homogeneous 1
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