Violence, Identity, and Alterity

139 Pages·2016·2.43 MB·English

by  Bruno Shirley

Violence, Identity, and Alterity
Post-War Rhetoric of Sri Lanka’s Bodu Bala Sena

By
Bruno Marshall Shirley

A thesis submitted to Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Religious Studies

Victoria University of Wellington
Te Whare Wānanga o te Ūpoko o te Ika a Māui
2015

ABSTRACT
The Bodu Bala Sena (Buddhist Strength Army) is a Sinhalese nationalist movement
led by Buddhist monks that recently came to international prominence following a
2014 anti-Muslim rally that erupted into deadly violence. The Bodu Bala Sena is set
apart from earlier nationalist movements in that its hostility is primarily directed
towards Sri Lankan Muslims instead of Tamil separatists. Despite this difference I
argue that the Bodu Bala Sena is best considered as a new development in this
existing tradition of Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism, and that the re-orientation of
the Bodu Bala Sena’s hostility from Tamils to Muslims reveals the extent to which
Sinhalese nationalist conceptions of their own identity are built around various
interpretations of a particular “identity narrative.” This identity narrative, which
has its genesis in anti-colonial interpretations of the Mahavamsa, casts the Sinhalese
people as defenders of a sacred island (the dhammadipa) against impious foreign
invaders who threaten its unity and sanctity. The case of the Bodu Bala Sena
demonstrates both the ongoing relevance of this identity narrative in the post-war
era and, importantly, the availability of the narrative for contextual re-
interpretation. The identity narrative model, which incorporates both mythic
origins and contextual interpretation, helps to bridge some of the existing debates
on the nature and origins of Buddhist nationalism in Sri Lanka which tend to favour
either one or the other.
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namo tassa bhagavato arahato samma sambuddhassa.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to acknowledge the following people for their support and assistance,
without which this thesis would not have been possible:
My supervisors, Rick Weiss and Michael Radich, who tirelessly encouraged my
improvement, who served as exemplars of what scholarship could be, and to whom
I will always be grateful;
Aliki Kalliabetsos, the rock upon whom our programme is built;
Philip Fountain, for the many enjoyable hours spent discussing pedagogy, pop
culture, and everything in between;
The faculty members who kindly gave feedback and suggestions on my proposal;
Michael K. Jerryman, for generously sharing transcripts of his interviews with
leaders of the Bodu Bala Sena, as well as slides from a Bodu Bala Sena presentation
he attended;
Ben Schonthal, for generously providing material then unpublished, and for
patiently answering my various questions;
My fellow postgraduates, who provided feedback on my research seminar midway
through the project;
My officemates, Benno, Emma, Devon, Milan, Sophie S., Thomas, Comfort, Sue Ann,
David, Sophie F., and the various cats we adopted, for providing entertainment and
support throughout;
Finally, my family, Geoff, Carolyn, and Ella, for whom I have nothing but love and
gratitude.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................... iii
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... iv
List of Illustrations ................................................................................................................................. vi
List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................ vii
Glossary of Pali and Sinhala Terms ............................................................................................... viii
1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Objectives of the Study ....................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Limitations of the Study .................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Methodology of the Study ................................................................................................. 6
1.4 Outline of the Study ............................................................................................................. 7
1.5 Three Themes: Violence, Identity, and Alterity ....................................................... 8
1.6 The Bodu Bala Sena: A Brief Overview ...................................................................... 10
1.7 Terminology ......................................................................................................................... 14
2 Narrative, Identity, and Empowerment.............................................................................. 17
2.1 Narrative and Identity ...................................................................................................... 18
2.2 Identity Narratives in Sri Lanka ................................................................................... 21
2.2.1 Pre-Colonial Identity ............................................................................................... 23
2.2.2 The Portuguese and Dutch Narratives ............................................................. 24
2.2.3 The British Narrative .............................................................................................. 28
2.2.4 The Sinhalese Counter-Narrative....................................................................... 31
2.3 Identity and Violence ........................................................................................................ 34
2.4 Conclusions to Chapter Two .......................................................................................... 38
3 Change and Continuity: Buddhist Nationalism in Sri Lanka ...................................... 40
3.1 The Mahavamsa in Nationalist Ideology ................................................................... 41
3.2 Reforming and Restoring the Sasana ......................................................................... 48
3.3 Conclusions to Chapter Three ....................................................................................... 56
4 Constructing The New Threat................................................................................................. 57
4.1 Methodological Framework: Securitisation Analysis.......................................... 58
4.2 Muslims as a Demographic Threat .............................................................................. 63
4.3 Muslims as a Cultural Threat ......................................................................................... 71
4.4 Muslims as an Economic Threat .................................................................................. 80
4.5 Muslims as a Political Threat ......................................................................................... 85
4.6 Conclusions to Chapter Four ......................................................................................... 90
5 Beyond “Cause” or “Epiphenomenon:” A Post-Secularist Approach ...................... 93
5.1 Religion as Cause of or Epiphenomenon to Violence .......................................... 94
5.2 Problematizing Secularist Theories of Religious Violence ................................ 99
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5.3 Religion as Identity; Identity as Political ............................................................... 104
5.4 Conclusions to Chapter Five ....................................................................................... 108
6 General Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 110
6.1 Summary of the Argument .......................................................................................... 110
6.2 Avenues for Further Study .......................................................................................... 112
6.2.1 Peacebuilding Movements in the Post-War Era ........................................ 113
6.2.2 Reception of the Bodu Bala Sena by Sinhalese Buddhists .................... 113
6.2.3 The Political Response to Religion in Sri Lanka ........................................ 114
6.2.4 Buddhist Nationalism as a Non-Secular Phenomenon ........................... 114
6.2.5 Religious Authorities in Securitisation Analysis ....................................... 115
6.3 Policy Implications.......................................................................................................... 115
Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................... 119

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1: Monks in the audience of the Bodu Bala Sena's 2014 conference. ................ 11
Figure 2: From "One Country, One Law," published by Dilanthe Withanage on a
now-defunct Bodu Bala Sena website. .......................................................................................... 67
Figure 3: Slide 10 from Withanage's presentation to the ICES. Reproduced courtesy
of Michael K. Jerryson and Mahinda Deegalle............................................................................ 76
Figure 4: Slide 41 from Withanage's presentation to the ICES. Reproduced courtesy
of Michael K. Jerryson and Mahinda Deegalle............................................................................ 76
Figure 5: A promotional image from Britain First, shared (without context) on the
Bodu Bala Sena Facebook page. ....................................................................................................... 77
Figure 6: Slide 3 from Withanage's presentation to the ICES. Reproduced courtesy of
Michael K. Jerryson and Mahinda Deegalle. ................................................................................ 79
Figure 7: An image from the Bodu Bala Sena's Facebook page, featuring Gnanasara
(left) and Withanage as Islamic State execution victims. ...................................................... 87
Figure 8: "Let's Defeat the Conspiracy to Establish Sharia Law Secretly in Sri Lanka,"
a meeting called by the Bodu Bala Sena. ...................................................................................... 89

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