Understanding the adoption of soil and water conservation practices PDF
Preview Understanding the adoption of soil and water conservation practices
Understanding the adoption of soil and water conservation practices: The role of social capital by Elizabeth Musoke MRCP, Kansas State University, 2012 AN ABSTRACT OF A DISSERTATION submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Environmental Design and Planning College of Architecture, Planning and Design KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY Manhattan, Kansas 2017 Abstract Kenya has been adversely affected by soil erosion due to population growth, changes in land use and land cover, and unsustainable agricultural practices. Issues related to land degradation cost the Kenyan government approximately $390 million or 3 percent of the country’s GDP yearly (Government of Kenya, 2013). Despite extensive land degradation, many attempts to encourage the use of soil and water conservation (SWC) practices have been unsuccessful. The study focuses on Merigi Ward, Kenya. Merigi Ward lies within the Mara River Basin (MRB), an ecologically and economically important river basin that has experienced extensive erosion problems. Increased agricultural activities driven by population growth in the area and changes in land use and land cover have degraded the landscape. SWC practices are greatly needed to mitigate the effects of erosion and conserve the natural resources within the MRB. Past studies suggest that social capital may increase the adoption of SWC practices (Knowler & Bradshaw, 2007; Nyangena, 2008). This study defines social capital as the groups and networks, trust and reciprocity, formal and informal rules, and information that informs the interactions among persons that lead to collective action. Twenty-five smallholder farmers within Merigi Ward were interviewed and the relationship between the adoption of SWC practices and social capital was explored through a qualitative analysis. Additionally, the MRB is home to the Mau Mara Serengeti Sustainable Water Initiative (MaMaSe). The MaMaSe initiative is a public private partnership (P3) with the goal to promote sustainable water use, economic growth, and environmental conservation within the basin. The effect the MaMaSe initiative had on the level of social capital amongst the study participants was also investigated. Findings suggest that social capital is an important aspect of SWC adoption in Merigi Ward. Groups and networks provide farmers with implementation support and information. Particularly, the local farmers’ cooperative provides farmers with implementation assistance and links (bridging capital) to experts at the MaMaSe initiative and the Ministry of Agriculture. Strong bonding capital works in the favor of this community allowing for high levels of trust. Thus, farmers collaborate to help one another implement practices and exchange information, materials, and experiences. In general, social capital has helped facilitate better environmental conservation awareness and the use of SWC practices. The largest impact the MaMaSe initiative had on the community’s social capital was expanding networks (particularly bridging and linking capital) and providing in depth information and guidelines for SWC practice use. The P3 has also helped the farmers integrate environmental conservation into their daily lives and has helped promote a shared understanding of the importance of conservation. The findings of this study will help environmental conservation professionals understand how to use social capital to strengthen natural resource management. Understanding the adoption of soil and water conservation practices: The role of social capital by Elizabeth Musoke MRCP, Kansas State University, 2012 A DISSERTATION submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Environmental Design and Planning College of Architecture, Planning and Design KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY Manhattan, Kansas 2017 Approved by: Major Professor Dr. Tim Keane Copyright © Elizabeth Musoke 2017. Abstract Kenya has been adversely affected by soil erosion due to population growth, changes in land use and land cover, and unsustainable agricultural practices. Issues related to land degradation cost the Kenyan government approximately $390 million or 3 percent of the country’s GDP yearly (Government of Kenya, 2013). Despite extensive land degradation, many attempts to encourage the use of soil and water conservation (SWC) practices have been unsuccessful. The study focuses on Merigi Ward, Kenya. Merigi Ward lies within the Mara River Basin (MRB), an ecologically and economically important river basin that has experienced extensive erosion problems. Increased agricultural activities driven by population growth in the area and changes in land use and land cover have degraded the landscape. SWC practices are greatly needed to mitigate the effects of erosion and conserve the natural resources within the MRB. Past studies suggest that social capital may increase the adoption of SWC practices (Knowler & Bradshaw, 2007; Nyangena, 2008). This study defines social capital as the groups and networks, trust and reciprocity, formal and informal rules, and information that informs the interactions among persons that lead to collective action. Twenty-five smallholder farmers within Merigi Ward were interviewed and the relationship between the adoption of SWC practices and social capital was explored through a qualitative analysis. Additionally, the MRB is home to the Mau Mara Serengeti Sustainable Water Initiative (MaMaSe). The MaMaSe initiative is a public private partnership (P3) with the goal to promote sustainable water use, economic growth, and environmental conservation within the basin. The effect the MaMaSe initiative had on the level of social capital amongst the study participants was also investigated. Findings suggest that social capital is an important aspect of SWC adoption in Merigi Ward. Groups and networks provide farmers with implementation support and information. Particularly, the local farmers’ cooperative provides farmers with implementation assistance and links (bridging capital) to experts at the MaMaSe initiative and the Ministry of Agriculture. Strong bonding capital works in the favor of this community allowing for high levels of trust. Thus, farmers collaborate to help one another implement practices and exchange information, materials, and experiences. In general, social capital has helped facilitate better environmental conservation awareness and the use of SWC practices. The largest impact the MaMaSe initiative had on the community’s social capital is expanding networks (particularly bridging and linking capital) and providing in depth information and guidelines for SWC practice use. The P3 has also helped the farmers integrate environmental conservation into their daily lives and has helped promote a shared understanding of the importance of conservation. The findings of this study will help environmental conservation professionals understand how to use social capital to strengthen natural resource management. Table of Contents List of Figures .............................................................................................................................................. xii List of Tables ...............................................................................................................................................xiii Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................................... xiv Dedication ................................................................................................................................................... xv Chapter 1 - Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 Background ............................................................................................................................................... 1 Kenya’s Struggle with Land Degradation .................................................................................................. 2 Research Questions .................................................................................................................................. 7 Methods ................................................................................................................................................. 11 Study Area: The Mara River Basin .......................................................................................................... 12 Climate ............................................................................................................................................... 14 Hydrology ........................................................................................................................................... 15 Soils..................................................................................................................................................... 16 Land Use ............................................................................................................................................. 17 Study Significance and Objectives .......................................................................................................... 19 Structure of the Dissertation .................................................................................................................. 20 Chapter 2 - Literature Review ..................................................................................................................... 21 A Brief History of Soil Erosion and Conservation Policies in Kenya ........................................................ 21 Overview of soil erosion challenges in the Mara River Basin ................................................................. 25 Adoption of Soil and Water Conservation Practices: Trends & Conclusions in Peer-reviewed Literature ................................................................................................................................................................ 27 Defining Social Capital ............................................................................................................................ 36 Connecting Social Capital with SWC Practice Adoption ......................................................................... 38 Social organization and networks ...................................................................................................... 38 Community resources available for individual use ............................................................................ 39 Positive or negative group externalities ............................................................................................. 40 Structural and cognitive social capital ................................................................................................ 41 Addressing the forms of social capital in this dissertation ..................................................................... 42 The need for partnerships and state-society-synergy ............................................................................ 44 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Approaches to understanding SWC adoption ........................................... 47 Chapter 3 - Methods ................................................................................................................................... 51 viii Study Area .............................................................................................................................................. 51 Research Questions ................................................................................................................................ 55 Data Collection ....................................................................................................................................... 57 Semi-structured interviews ................................................................................................................ 57 Study participants & Sampling ........................................................................................................... 58 Smallholder Farmers ...................................................................................................................... 58 MaMaSe Partner Interviews .......................................................................................................... 60 Data Collection Timeframe & Saturation ........................................................................................... 61 Data Instruments ................................................................................................................................ 62 Measuring Social Capital ................................................................................................................ 62 Smallholder Farmer Interview Schedule and Short Survey ........................................................... 65 MaMaSe Partner Interview Schedules .......................................................................................... 66 Pre-testing .......................................................................................................................................... 66 Language Barriers ............................................................................................................................... 67 Data Analysis Techniques ....................................................................................................................... 70 Transcription ...................................................................................................................................... 70 Coding ................................................................................................................................................. 70 First Cycle Coding ........................................................................................................................... 71 Second Cycle Coding ...................................................................................................................... 72 Code Maps and Analytic Memos ................................................................................................... 73 Addressing Validity ................................................................................................................................. 74 Researcher bias .................................................................................................................................. 74 Ethical Approvals and Data Confidentiality ............................................................................................ 76 Chapter 4 - Results ...................................................................................................................................... 78 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 78 Results of short survey ........................................................................................................................... 78 Pattern Coding Results: Meta-codes ...................................................................................................... 84 Final Themes ........................................................................................................................................... 89 Theme 1 – Strength of Community Bonds ......................................................................................... 90 Feeling of Safety ............................................................................................................................. 90 Community Collaboration .............................................................................................................. 92 Summary ........................................................................................................................................ 96 ix Theme 2 - The importance of groups ................................................................................................. 96 Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 102 Theme 3 - Information ..................................................................................................................... 103 Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 108 Theme 4 – Community Learning ...................................................................................................... 109 Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 113 Theme 5 – Positive outlook .............................................................................................................. 113 Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 123 Chapter 5 - Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 125 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 125 Study Objectives ................................................................................................................................... 125 Research Questions & Methods ........................................................................................................... 126 Summary of Findings ............................................................................................................................ 127 Trust and Reciprocity........................................................................................................................ 127 Information ...................................................................................................................................... 128 Groups & Networks .......................................................................................................................... 129 Formal and Informal Rules ............................................................................................................... 131 Impact of the MaMaSe initiative ...................................................................................................... 132 Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 134 Addressing Generalizability .................................................................................................................. 136 Critical Reflexivity ................................................................................................................................. 138 Recommendations for Research .......................................................................................................... 139 Implications for Practice ....................................................................................................................... 141 Policy Recommendations ..................................................................................................................... 142 Reflections ............................................................................................................................................ 144 References ................................................................................................................................................ 146 Appendix A - Smallholder Farmer and Key Informant Interview Schedules ............................................. 160 Smallholder Farmer Interviews ............................................................................................................ 160 Key Informant Interview – Additional Questions ................................................................................. 161 Appendix B - Smallholder farmer short survey questions ........................................................................ 162 Appendix C - WWF and MaMaSe Initiative Staff Interviews .................................................................... 163 WWF Interview Schedule ..................................................................................................................... 163 x
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