Understanding Faults: Detecting, Dating, and Modeling PDF
Preview Understanding Faults: Detecting, Dating, and Modeling
Understanding Faults Detecting, Dating, and Modeling Edited by David Tanner Christian Brandes Elsevier Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates Copyright©2020ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans, electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorage andretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailsonhowto seekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspoliciesandour arrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearanceCenterandtheCopyright LicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/permissions. Thisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightby thePublisher(otherthanasmaybenotedherein). Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchand experiencebroadenourunderstanding,changesinresearchmethods,professional practices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary. Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgein evaluatingandusinganyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribed herein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafety andthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,or editors,assumeanyliabilityforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatter ofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods, products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN:978-0-12-815985-9 ForinformationonallElsevierpublicationsvisitour websiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher:CandiceJanco AcquisitionEditor:AmyShapiro EditorialProjectManager:SaraValentino ProductionProjectManager:OmerMukthar CoverDesigner:GregHarris TypesetbyTNQTechnologies List of contributors Christian Brandes, Institut fu¨r Geologie, Leibniz Universita¨t Hannover, Hannover, Germany Hermann Buness, Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics (LIAG), Hannover, Germany Conrad Childs,Fault AnalysisGroup, SchoolofGeologicalSciences, UCD,Dublin, Ireland A˚keFagereng,SchoolofEarth&OceanSciences,CardiffUniversity,Cardiff,United Kingdom Gerald Gabriel, Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics (LIAG), Hannover, Germany Nicolai Gestermann, Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources, Hannover,Germany Thomas Gu¨nther, Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics (LIAG), Hannover, Germany Andreas Henk, Institute of Applied Geosciences, Technical University Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany JanIgel,LeibnizInstituteforAppliedGeophysics(LIAG),Hannover,Germany Matt Ikari, MARUMeCenter for Marine Environmental Sciences and Faculty of Geosciences, UniversityofBremen,Bremen, Germany MichaelKettermann,DepartmentofGeodynamicsandSedimentology,Universityof Vienna,Vienna,Austria TomManzocchi,FaultAnalysisGroup,SchoolofGeologicalSciences,UCD,Dublin, Ireland Christopher K. Morley, Department of Geological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Chiang MaiUniversity,ChiangMai,Thailand AndrewNicol,DepartmentofGeologicalSciences, UniversityofCanterbury,Christ- church, NewZealand Stefan Nielsen, Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom Andre´ Niemeijer, Department of Geoscience, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands Thomas Plenefisch, Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources, Hannover,Germany xi xii Listofcontributors PeterSkiba,LeibnizInstituteforAppliedGeophysics(LIAG),Hannover,Germany Luca Smeraglia, Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome,Italy Takahiro Tagami, Division of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Graduate School of Science,KyotoUniversity,Kyoto,Japan David C. Tanner, Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics (LIAG), Hannover, Germany Sumiko Tsukamoto, Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics (LIAG), Hannover, Germany Christoph von Hagke, Institute of Geology & Palaeontology, RWTH Aachen Uni- versity,Aachen,Germany John Walsh, Fault Analysis Group, School of Geological Sciences, UCD, Dublin, Ireland Thomas R. Walter, GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Potsdam, Germany ErnstWillingshofer,Department ofEarth Sciences,UtrechtUniversity,Utrecht,The Netherlands Horst Zwingmann, Department of Geology and Mineralogy, Faculty of Science, KyotoUniversity,Kyoto,Japan Preface Thisbookistheaccumulationofmanyyearsofresearchonfaultsandrepresents ourownpersonalviewsofthestateoftheartinfaultanalysis.Someyearsago, we recognisedthat,althoughdifferent branchesofgeoscienceallregard faults andtheprocessesoffaultingasimportant,eachgrouphasitsownmethodsand theories.Consequently,abookthatfocusesonallaspectsoffaultswasmissing onthemarket. Wehadtwoaimswhencompilingthisbook.First,wewantedtoprovidea holisticviewonallfacetsoffaulting,withafocusonfaultprocessesandfault detection.Second,thisbookpresentsatransdisciplinaryapproachthatunitesthe differentgeosciencesub-disciplinesthatareconcernedwithfaults,inparticular showingtheadvantagesofcombiningthemethods.Forinstance,itisimportant to connect the way faults are treated in structural geology with seismological methods of fault analysis. We believe that this holistic treatment is the key to understand faults, and to develop advanced predictive fault models. We have attemptedtokeep thestyleofthebook sothat studentsfrom any geo-relevant backgroundcanreadit.Nevertheless,wealsotriedreachalevelbetweentext- bookandresearcharticletomakethebookinterestingfortheadvancedreader.In addition, forreasons ofbrevity, somechaptersareshorterthan wewouldlike; thereforewemadeanefforttocitethebackgroundandadvancedreadinginthese subjects. Discussion with many colleagues has shaped the book. In addition to the authors in the book, they include; Peter Eichhubl, Bob Holdsworth, Catherine Homberg,ChristopherA.-L.Jackson,Ru¨digerKillian,CharlotteM.Krawczyk, Katharina Mu¨ller, Anne Pluymakers, Janos Urai, Jennifer Ziesch. We humbly claimanymistakesforourselves. Weareverygratefultothereviewerswhohavecriticallyreadcertainchapters and provided constructive reviews, namely: Istva´n Dunkl, Ingo Heyde, Inga Moeck,AndyNicol,ShigeruSueoka,MartinScho¨pfer.TillSchiererandLotta Hanzelmannarethankedforredrawingsomeofthefigures. xiii Chapter 1 Introduction David C. Tannera, Christian Brandesb aLeibnizInstituteforAppliedGeophysics(LIAG),Hannover,Germany;bInstitutfu¨rGeologie, LeibnizUniversita¨tHannover,Hannover,Germany Chapter outline Definitionofafaultsurface,fault References 9 kinematicsanddisplacement 5 Since the advent of plate tectonics, geoscience has rapidly developed. Within the field of geoscience, tectonic research on faults represents a highly diverse sub-discipline. It underwent a transformation over the last few decades in its approach to understanding the Earth, by combining observations that are derived from natural rocks, experiments, and modelling studies. This over- came the previous, simple kinematic and steady-state fault descriptions, and allowed the analysis of dynamic and transient processes (Huntington, K.W., Klepeis,K.A.,with66communitycontributors,2018).Wefollowthispathto present a book that delivers a holistic dynamic treatment of faults. Faults are structural elements in the lithosphere that compensate for deformation under brittle conditions. At greater depth, faults can pass into shearzones,whereplasticdeformationoccurs, whichmeansthatdeformation mechanisms vary along a fault. Faults are very widespread in the lithosphere andtheygenerallyoccuringroups,whichmeansthatthesubsurfacestructure is often more heterogeneous than expected. In addition, faults are complex structuresthatareinsufficientlydescribedbysimplegeometricalmodels.Such models might work on the first-order scale, but faults (especially faults with displacementsofmorethanseveral10sofmetres)tendtoevolveintocomplex faultzonesthatareveryheterogeneousintermsofgeometry,compositionand structure.Assuch,theyhaveastrongcontrolonthesubsurfacefluidflowand in the case of active faults, significantly influence rupture behaviour. Conse- quently, very different geoscience sub-disciplines, such as structural geology, geomechanics, seismology, engineering geology, petroleum geology, and Quaternary geology require profound knowledge of faults. Faults are the source of earthquakes and thus they are the connecting elements between UnderstandingFaults.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815985-9.00001-1 Copyright©2020ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. 1 2 UnderstandingFaults structural geology and seismology. For instance, although both disciplines focus on faults, they often treat them from very different perspectives and investigate them on different temporal and spatial scales. Whereas, structural geology treats faults very directly, but often based on outcrop studies, seis- mology often concentrates on the signals (seismic waves) that are emitted duringfaultactivity.Thisleadstoisolated andthusrestrictedviewsonfaults. Analysingfaultzoneheterogeneityisakeytaskincharacterizingafault.In this context, there are many questions unsolved and understanding faults is a complex problem. Although there has been great progress in fault analysis overthelasttwodecades,aunifiedfaultmodelisstilllackingthatcanserveas a predictive tool for fault zone composition, structure and for fault slip behaviour. Especially fault behaviour needs to be understood on different spatial and temporal scales. When active faults move, they may enter a seismic phase, during which earthquakesoccur.Theco-relatedearthmovementsthattakeplaceduringthe earthquake, such as landslides, tsunami, and the destruction of infrastructure meanthatearthquakesareoneofthemostimportantglobalgeologicalhazards (Fig. 1.1). It is this side of faulting that is most well-known. Earthquakes, at the very best, destroy infrastructure and, at the very worst, cause loss of life. Since 1990, earthquakes have cost 27000 lives on average, each year FIG. 1.1 300m high landslip caused by the 2016 magnitude 7.8 Kaikoura Earthquake in the SouthIslandofNewZealand.Thephotowastakentwoyearsaftertheearthquake,whichoccurred 2minutesaftermidnighton14November2016. Introduction Chapter | 1 3 (A) (B) FIG.1.2 Scenariosinwhichfaultsareuseful.(A)Hydrocarbonstrappedbyfaulting.(B)fault guidinghydrothermalenergytothesurfaceandashallowborehole. (Guha-Sapiretal.,2011).Topeoplewholiveonplateboundaries,e.g.inNew Zealand,Japan,andthewestcoastofNorthAmerica,theirlivesaregovernby earthquakes (Fig. 1.1). Even within continental plates, there are less frequent and, for that reason, even more surprising earthquakes. There is a lesser-known side of faulting, which is clearly beneficial to humankind. Many fault zones are known to act as conduits for the focused migrationoffluidsandclearlyplay acentral roleindetermining the location, modesoftransport,andemplacementofeconomicallyimportanthydrocarbon and hydrological reservoirs, and hydrothermal mineral deposits (Fig. 1.2A). For instance, water can migrate along a fault damage zone and appear at the surface as hot springs along the fault trace (Fig. 1.2B). The ancient Romans recognised this was the case around Aachen in Germany, and it was for this reason that they settled there (they called it “Aquae Granni“ - at the waters, Fig. 1.3). In fact, the springs around Aachen deliver far more thermal power than the SuperC borehole that was drilled in Aachen specifically for geothermal use, showing that the faults are far better at delivering thermal energythanthesurroundingrocks(Dijkshoornetal.,2013).Similarsituations, where hot springs are sourced by faults, are found, for instance, in Indonesia (Brehme et al.,. 2014), along the well-named Hot Springs Fault and other faultsinCalifornia(Onderdonketal.,2011;Onderdonk,2012),andalongthe AlpineFaultinNewZealand(Coxetal.,2015),tonamejustafewexamples. Thisisanimportantobservationandmovesfaultsintofocusforexplorationof geothermal energy plays (Moeck, 2014). Explorationforgeothermalenergynowoftenconcentratesonfindingfaults atdepth,preferablystillactiveorrecentlyactive(Bartonetal.,1995;Carewitz and Karson, 1997; Huenges and Ledru, 2011). This is because the faults form both pathways (parallel to the fault surface) and baffles to the flow of hydrothermalwater(acrossthefault;seeChapter8-Faultseal).Lovelessetal. (2014)suggestedthatfaultscouldevendeterminethesuccessorfailureoflow 4 UnderstandingFaults FIG. 1.3 The Elisenbrunnen in Aachen, built in neoclassic style in 1827, allows visitors to samplethehighlysulphurous,52(cid:2)Cmineralwaterthatmigratesalongthemanyfaultsinthearea (seeChapter8)photo:NilsChudalla. enthalpy geothermal projects. For example, Blackwell et al. (2000) show that 90%ormoreofmajorknowngeothermalsystemsintheBasinandRangearea ofAmericaarewithin3kmoflatePleistoceneoryoungerfaults.Faultscanalso seal an otherwise open reservoir and trap hydrocarbons or ore minerals that wouldnormallyescapeanddissipate(Fig.1.2B).Amajorityofpetroleumtraps are due to fault closures and/or fault-rock seals (Sorkhabi and Tsuji, 2005). Theamountofknowledgethatisnotknownaboutafaultcanbeshownby the surprises that have resulted from scientific deep-drilling projects that aimed to cross major faults. For instance, the SAFOD project was designed withthepurposeofdrillingthroughtheSanAndreasFaultatadepthof2.7km (e.g.,HickmanandZoback,2004;Zobacketal.,2011).Thefaultwasfoundto be profoundly weak (coefficient of friction¼0.15; Lockner et al., 2011; Carpenter et al., 2015), which can be attributed tothe presence of smectite in shear fractures (Warr et al., 2014). TheGermanContinentalDeepDrillingProgram(AbbreviationinGerman, KTB) drilled through the Franconian Lineament, a major strike-slip fault of westernborderoftheBohemianMassifinNEBavaria,Germany(seeSection 3.4; Fig. 3.16), The borehole probably crossed the fault at a depth of 6850e7950m (Emmermann and Lauterjung, 1997). Most surprising was the presence of graphite along the fault plane, making electromagnetics the best geophysicalmethodtodeterminethepositionofthefaultatdepth(Rathetal., 2001). All the basement rocks drilled also contained a surprising amount of free fluids (Emmermann and Lauterjung, 1997), but significant inflows of fluids were noted along the fault zones (Huenges et al., 1997), evenat depths down to 9km.
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