Understanding and conducting research in the health sciences

538 Pages·8.279 MB·English

by  Christopher J L Cunningham, Bart L Weathington, David J Pittenger

Understanding and
Conducting Research
in the Health Sciences

Understanding and
Conducting Research
in the Health Sciences
Christopher J. L. Cunningham
Department of Psychology
The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
Chattanooga, TN
Bart L. Weathington
Department of Psychology
The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
Chattanooga, TN
David J. Pittenger
College of Liberal Arts
Marshall University
Huntington, WV
Copyright © 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Cunningham, Christopher J. L., author.
Understanding and conducting research in the health sciences / Christopher J.L. Cunningham, Bart L. Weathington,
David J. Pittenger.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-118-13540-2 (cloth) – ISBN 978-1-118-51494-8 (eBook) (print) – ISBN 978-1-118-51492-4 (ePDF)
(print) – ISBN 978-1-118-51493-1 (ePub) (print) – ISBN 978-1-118-51490-0 (eMOBI) (print)
I. Weathington, Bart L., author. II. Pittenger, David J., author. III. Title.
[DNLM: 1. Biomedical Research–methods. 2. Research Design. W 20.5]
610.28'4–dc23
2013001307
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
We dedicate this book to the mentors, family members, students, and
colleagues who have guided and shaped us personally and professionally.

Contents
Preface ix 12 Single-Variable
Between-Subjects Research 315
Part One Overview of the 13 Between-Subjects Factorial
Research Process Designs 345
1 Behavioral and Social Research 14 Correlated-Groups Designs 367
in the Health Sciences 3
2 Ethics and Research 25 Part Four Special Research Designs
3 The Foundations of Research 45
15 Single-Participant Experiments,
Longitudinal Studies, and
4 An Overview of Empirical
Quasi-Experimental Designs 393
Methods 79
16 Research with Categorical
Data 415
Part Two Nuts and Bolts of Research
17 Qualitative and Mixed-Methods
5 Writing the Research Report 113 Research 439
6 Reviewing the Literature 139
Appendix A Reviewing the
7 Sampling 161 Statistics behind the Research 461
8 Assessments, Surveys, and Appendix B Statistical Tables 479
Objective Measurement 191
Index 521
9 A Model for Research Design 225
Part Three Common Research
Designs
10 Correlational Research 255
11 Between-Subjects Designs 285
vii

Preface
Understanding health requires understanding people and understanding people requires
knowledge of behavioral and social science.
—Christopher J. L. Cunningham, Bart L. Weathington, and David J. Pittenger
PHILOSOPHY FOR WRITING THIS BOOK
Professionals in the health sciences interact with people every day. It is increas-
ingly the case that issues of cultural competence, humanism, interpersonal com-
passion, and patient perceptions of care quality are on the minds of those responsible
for developing tomorrow ’ s physicians. A shared characteristic of all these and
many other issues is that they are based on perceptions, behaviors, and cognitions.
These latter elements are core elements to human psychology and to the ways in
which people interact with each other and their environments.
Given this reality, it is important to consider the role of behavioral and social
science research within the health science professions. Unfortunately, many pro-
fessionals-in-training in this area receive little to no training in basic social science
research methods, focusing instead on biological or other forms of laboratory-
based study. Although such highly controlled studies are important for the devel-
opment and testing of new medications and treatments, the health sciences cannot
simply ignore the more psychological and sociological factors that also impact the
application of health science knowledge. This is our primary reason for writing
this book.
The importance of social and behavioral processes within the health sciences
is often overlooked. Because of this, we offer the present textbook to help teach
core research concepts that can help health science professionals better understand
and work with complex behavioral and social processes. For those of us who teach
research methods, one of the most gratifying experiences is watching others
develop a passion for conducting research and an understanding of the practical
value of systematic information gathering and decision making. Because the vital-
ity of any branch of science depends on a solid grounding on research methods
and analytic strategies, it is our belief that understanding research methods is
among the most important competency building blocks within the health
sciences.
The present text represents our effort to provide a resource for health science
professionals-in-training and for established professionals wishing to expand their
expertise. The material we present may also be helpful to advanced undergraduate
students who intend to pursue graduate work in the health sciences, especially
given the increasing importance of this content in upcoming versions of the
Medical College Admission Test and given the increasing emphasis placed on
ix
x Preface
research within most graduate medical education programs. We have incorporated
a variety of key features to make the material in this text accessible, interesting,
and practically useful, without watering down the importance of systematically
identifying questions and appropriate methods for answering those questions.
General Style
To keep this book accessible and useful, we have written this book in editorial
style that is narrative in its tone and inviting for the reader. Although there is a
clear conversational style to the text, there is no lack of rigor in the material that
is presented. Throughout the text, we provide comprehensive accounts of behav-
ioral and social scientists ’ best ideas and research methods.
Examples
A related strategy that we applied throughout this text was the selection of relevant
and contemporary examples of behavioral and social science research within
health-related fi elds. Our goal in selecting these examples was to illustrate impor-
tant topics covered in the chapter and to show how health science professionals
can use the research methods and analytical tools we present in this text to address
complex and important questions.
Integration of Research Methods and
Statistical Concepts
Those familiar with basic parametric statistics know that they come with many
mathematical strings attached. If the researcher cannot ensure that the data and
the design of the data collection methods meet these basic assumptions, then the
inferences derived from eventual statistical analyses may be suspect. In some
cases, a statistic is extremely robust to violations of its assumptions; other statistics
fail to withstand even minor deviations from assumptions.
An assumption we made while writing this book is that that our readers have
completed at least a general introduction to statistics course. Consequently, a
certain level of statistical knowledge is assumed, especially regarding more basic
concepts such as measures of central tendency, measures of dispersion, or standard
scores. Nonetheless, many students have a tendency to forget or temporarily mis-
place much of their statistical knowledge following completion of their required
statistics course. To address this, we review critical statistical concepts as they
relate to specifi c methodological techniques. Additionally, we include a focused
appendix that can serve as an initial statistics review.
Therefore, in writing this book, we wanted to ensure that students receive a
comprehensive and detailed review of the best techniques for studying behavior
and social phenomena within the health sciences. Consequently, where appropri-
ate, our chapters provide a comprehensive review of research methods and the