Tokyo University of Foreign Studies

277 Pages·2017·2.49 MB·English

by  Gunnar Rekvig

博士学位論文（東京外国語大学）
Doctoral Thesis (Tokyo University of Foreign Studies)

氏 名 レークヴィッグ グンナール
学位の種類 博士（学術）
学位記番号 博甲第222号
学位授与の日付 2017年1月18日
学位授与大学 東京外国語大学
博士学位論文題目 北欧的平和均衡
紛争構造の変換のための アプローチ、解決手法とその原理

Name Rekvig, Gunnar
Name of Degree Doctor of Philosophy (Humanities)
Degree Number Ko-no. 222
Date 18 January 2017
Grantor Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, JAPAN
Title of Doctoral The Nordic Peace
Thesis Approaches, Solutions, and Principles of Conflict
Transformation
The Nordic Peace

Approaches, Solutions, and Principles
of Conflict Transformation

Gunnar Rekvig
PhD Dissertation
Tokyo University of Foreign Studies
The Nordic Peace
Approaches, Solutions, and Principles
of Conflict Transformation

北欧的平和均衡
紛争構造の変換のための
アプローチ、解決手法とその原理

Gunnar Rekvig
PhD Dissertation

Tokyo University of Foreign Studies
Main Supervisor: Professor Kenji Isezaki
Supervisor: Professor Chikako Nakayama
Supervisor: Professor Minoru Iwasaki
University of Tromsø – The Arctic University of Norway
Supervisor: Professor Nils Vidar Vambheim

September 2016
The Nordic Peace
Abstract

This thesis examines the history of the Nordic Peace hermeneutically. In order
to do this, the foundation of the peace, its principles, will be abstracted from
the ad hoc solutions to regional conflicts between Nordic countries. These
solutions ultimately transformed a region of conflict or negative peace, to a
zone of positive peace.

The thesis will answer the following questions:
1) How have the solutions that underlie the Nordic Peace transcended causes
for conflict? And 2) are there universal potentials in the Nordic solutions?

This will be elucidated through an in depth analysis of three historical cases
that would shape and transform the region after 1814, the year marking the
onset of the Nordic Peace and its subsequent paradigm shift. These three
cases will be comprised of: 1) The Union of Norway and Sweden. The
unification of Norway and Sweden was forced on Norway as the Napoleonic
Wars were ending. The union would however be one of internal conflict with
several contentions, which finality saw the peaceful dissolution of the union by
Norway seceding from Sweden. 2) The Schleswig-Holstein Issue. A conflict
over the ownership of the twin duchies of Schleswig and Holstein between
Denmark and Germany culminated with the Danish loss of the duchies after
two wars. This created an irredentist conflict as the Danes of Schleswig now
inhabited Germany. A solution would come in the aftermath of the First World
War with a plebiscite that resulted with the border between Denmark and
Germany being redrawn, which compounded the irredentist problem by
establishing two minorities in the border area, one Danish and the other
German. Ultimately, the irredentist conflict would be solved by comprehensive
minority rights. 3) The Åland Islands problem. Finland and Sweden would
enter a conflict over the ownership of the Åland Islands when Finland gained
independence from Russia. The Ålanders, being Swedish used their self-
determination to try to cede from Finland, while Finland argued its territorial
integrity was inviolable. The conflict would be solved by the League of Nations
that ruled the Åland Islands were Finnish, granted the Ålanders autonomy
under Finland. The laws were agreed upon by Finland and Sweden.
Furthermore, as the Åland Islands are of a militarily-strategic importance and
been part of several regional wars, the islands were demilitarized and
neutralized.

A further four cases that are part of the continuum of this peace, will be
highlighted in order to show the emergence of a pattern being formed and
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The Nordic Peace
later maintained; a pattern showing a preference for peaceful resolution to
conflict. The four additional cases are: 1) Denmark and Norway over the East
Greenland dispute; 2) Denmark and Iceland over Iceland’s peaceful
secession and independence from Denmark; 3) Norway and Russia and the
delimitation of the boundary in the Barents Sea; and 4) Canada and Denmark
with the ongoing territorial dispute over Hans Island. This in turn shows how
pragmatic solutions to conflicts, transformed the region to a zone of
sustainable peace. The overarching principles that underpin the region’s
peace will be extracted from the solutions to complex conflicts in which 1)
irreconcilable principles such as self-determination and territorial integrity are
reconciled, and as such 2) are transcended. This has led to the establishment
of a sustainable security community in the Nordic Region.

As a contrast to the Nordic Region, Japan and the Northeast Asian Region
will be used as the conflicts there are structurally similar conflict to those that
the Nordic Region transcended. The conflicts will comprise: 1) the territorial
dispute between China and Japan over the Pinnacle Islands; 2) the territorial
dispute between Japan and South Korea over the Liancourt Rocks; 3) the
territorial dispute between Japan and Russia over the Kuril Islands; and 4) the
regional conflict over the history of the Second World War. Therefore, as the
Northeast Asian conflicts have not been solved, they will be compared with
the those of the Nordic Region. The Nordic Peace is best described as
resultant to conflicts producing win/win solutions that ultimately benefit all. As
such they are the antithesis to zero-sum solutions, which seems to be the
preferred patter in Northeast Asia. Even in the conflicts that were sent to
arbitration, amicable results were either attained or the supranational decision
was deferred to and accepted without animosity.

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The Nordic Peace
論文の和文要旨1

この論文は「ノルディック・ピース（北欧的平和均衡）」の歴史と現状を解
釈学の手法で分析する。その平和均衡の源泉と原理を、北欧諸国間に起きた
個々の紛争とその処理の歴史的経緯から導き出す。それらの原理が、北欧を
紛争対立もしく消極的平和地域から積極的平和地帯へと変化させたものと定
義する。

この論文は以下の問題意識を掲げる。

１）北欧の歴史的な紛争処理はどのように対立要因を平和均衡へと変換させ
てきたか。そして２）その北欧的紛争処理に普遍的な可能性はあるか。

これらの問いに答えるため、平和均衡に向かう試みが北欧的紛争処理として
初めて認知され、そして「北欧」の地理的概念が確立した１８１４年以降に
起こった３つの歴史的事例を分析する。それらは、１）ノルウェーとスウェ
ーデンの連合化。これはナポレオン戦争の結果ノルウェーに強制され、以後
紛争の原因になっていたが、最終的にスウェーデンからの分離独立が平和裡
に達成された。２）シュレースヴィヒ＝ホルシュタイン問題。これは、デン
マークとドイツの国境に位置する２つの公領の併合を巡る２つの戦争であり、
第一次世界大戦後、住民投票によって解決され、双方の領域にマイノリティ
ーとしての民族の生存権が確保され解決した例である。３）オーランド諸島
問題。フィンランドがロシアから独立した１９１８年、この領有権を巡って
スウェーデンと対立。この問題は、国際連盟の仲裁によって解決されたばか
りでなく、関連国全てにとって軍事的重要拠点であった同諸島が完全に非武
装化そして中立化された。
さらにこの論文は、北欧的紛争処理が、平和均衡に向けた一つのパターンと
して連続的に認識されたその他４事例を分析する。それらは対立よりも平和
的解決策を希求する外交文化の出現が、その地域に安定をもたらすことを証
明する。１）デンマークとノルウェー間の東グリーンランド問題。２）アイ
スランドのデンマークからの平和的分離独立。３）ノルウェーとロシア間の
バレンツ海における領海線の平和的確定。４）カナダとノルウェー間のハン
ス島の領有権問題。
これらのケースは対立要因への実践的な解決策となり、この地域を持続的平
和地帯へと変換させた。

1 Japanese Abstract
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The Nordic Peace
この地域の平和を実証する包括的な原理性は、通常、激しく相反する２つの
原理：「民族自決権」と「領土的一体性」を和解させ変節させた事実に存在
する。これが北欧地域を持続的安全保障共同体の確立へと導いた。

日本と北東アジア地域には、北欧地域が乗り越えてきた対立構造に類似した
ものが存在する。それらは、１）日中間の尖閣諸島問題、２）日韓の竹島問
題、３）日露の北方領土問題、４）第二次世界大戦の戦争責任を巡る歴史解
釈問題、である。これら北東アジアの対立は平和均衡に至っていないので、
北欧地域のそれと対比させることは学術的に意義がある。

北欧的平和均衡は、紛争当事者に双方両得の解決策を生み出す最適な帰結と
して位置付けられる。これは北東アジアが好むゼロサム解決策とは対象的で
ある。仲裁に委ねられ解決策は達成されなかったケースでも、国家を超え醸
成された平和的均衡が、ゼロサムを好む各国の政局と敵意の醸成を抑制し、
結果、平和裡の解決に導いた。

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The Nordic Peace
Acknowledgements

I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to my main academic supervisor,
Professor Kenji Isezaki, and my supervisors, Professors Chikako Nakayama
and Minoru Iwasaki, as well as to Tokyo University of Foreign Studies for
giving me the opportunity for making this study possible.

I would furthermore like to give my most sincere acknowledgments and
thanks to my external supervisor Professor Nils Vidar Vambheim at the
University of Tromsø, and to Dr. Desmond J Molloy at the Nippon Foundation,
in addition to Ms. Rie Ishida and everyone else who helped me in this writing
process for your criticisms, suggestions, and perhaps most importantly,
inspiration.

I wish to give credit due to Clive Archer and Pertti Joenniemi and the
contributors to their book, The Nordic Peace, which bears the same name as
my dissertation (excluding the subtitle). This significant work was instrumental
for me in embarking on this project.

I am most indebted and grateful to my mother, Bjørg S Rekvig, and father, Dr.
Ole Petter Rekvig, for their unabating and resolute support throughout this
undertaking. And finally, for encouragement and unwavering patience, I offer
my deepest appreciation, thanks, and recognition to my wife, Minako
Kikkawa, and to our son, Arn Kikkawa Rekvig, for his remarkable ability to
make a bad day not only good, but great.

I am most obliged to you all.

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The Nordic Peace

For the current state of knowledge remains vague when
history is not considered, just as history remains vague without
substantive knowledge of the current state.

- Ludwik Fleck2

2 L. Fleck et al., Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact (University of
Chicago Press, 2012). 54
VII
The Nordic Peace
Table of Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 The Nordic Region as a Zone of Positive Peace 2
1.2 Structure of the Thesis 4
1.3 Research Questions and Methodology 12
1.4 Objectives of the Thesis 14
2 The Nordic Security Community 17
2.1 Zones of peace 18
2.2 Security Community 19
2.3 Consensus based Political Organization 22
3 The Nordic Peace: Current State and a Belligerent Background 24
3.1 Interconnectivity and Language 25
3.2 Indigenous People and Minorities 26
3.3 The Nordic Council 29
3.4 Peace of Kiel – The end of Intra-Nordic Wars and the start of the
Nordic Peace 31
3.5 Background of the Peace of Kiel and the Kalmar Union 32
3.6 Napoleonic Wars 34
4 Case One: Norway-Sweden – Unification, Union, Disunion, and the
legacy of the Peace of Kiel 1814-1905 42
4.1 A push for independence 47
4.2 1814-1905 Norway-Sweden: Union and Democratization 55
4.3 1884-1905 Norway-Sweden: Dissolution of the Union 65
4.4 Independence and the War that was not 71
5 Case Two: Denmark-Germany – the Schleswig-Holstein Issue: Two
Wars, a Loss of Territory, Irredentism, Plebiscite, the Redrawing of a
Border, and Minority Rights 1864-1920 (& 1955) 75
5.1 Background and outcome for the Schleswig Wars 77
5.2 The First Schleswig War: A Nation United in Pan-Germanic
Nationalism 78
VIII