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AOCS MISSION STATEMENT To be a global forum to promote the exchange of ideas, information, and experience; to enhance personal excellence; and to provide high standards of quality among those with a professional interest in the science and technology of fats, oils, surfactants, and related materials. AOCS BOOKS AND SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS COMMITTEE M. Mossoba, Chairperson, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, College Park, Maryland M.L. Besemer, Besemer Consulting, Rancho Santa Margarita, California W. Byrdwell, USDA, ARS, BHNRC, FCMDL, Beltsville, Maryland P. Dutta, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden V. Huang, Yuanpei University of Science and Technology, Taiwan L. Johnson, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa H. Knapp, Billings, Montana G. Knothe, USDA, ARS, NCAUR, Peoria, Illinois D. Kodali, Global Agritech Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota G.R. List, USDA, NCAUR-Retired, Consulting, Peoria, Illinois J.V. Makowski, Windsor Laboratories, Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania T. McKeon, USDA, ARS, WRRC, Albany, California R. Moreau, USDA, ARS, ERRC, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania P. White, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa N. Widlak, ADM Cocoa, Milwaukee, Wisconsin R. Wilson, USDA, REE, ARS, NPS, CPPVS-Retired, Beltsville, Maryland Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Cover: Design & photography by Thong Vo of annatto seed pod with thanks to Harrison Tan for his assistance. Annatto (Bixa orellana) is a plant from which tocopherol-free tocotrienol is obtained. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2013 by American Oil Chemists Society CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 20120719 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-8443-0 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material repro- duced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copy- right.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifica- tion and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents Preface...............................................................................................................................................ix Acknowledgments ..........................................................................................................................xiii Editors ..............................................................................................................................................xv Contributors ...................................................................................................................................xvii Chapter 1 Tocotrienols in Plants: Occurrence, Biosynthesis, and Function .................................1 Maren Müller, Jana Cela, María A. Asensi-Fabado, and Sergi Munné-Bosch Chapter 2 Safety of Unsaturated Vitamin E Tocotrienols and Their Isomers ............................17 Alexander G. Schauss, John R. Endres, and Amy Clewell Chapter 3 Bioavailability and Metabolism of Tocotrienols ........................................................37 Zhihong Yang, Mao-Jung Lee, Shengmin Sang, and Chung S. Yang Chapter 4 Bioavailability of Tocotrienols and Interference of Their Bioavailability by α-Tocopherol Supplementation .............................................................................53 Saiko Ikeda, Tomono Uchida, and Chisato Abe Chapter 5 Alpha-Tocopherol: A Detriment to Tocotrienol Benefits ...........................................61 Anne M. Trias and Barrie Tan Chapter 6 Antiangiogenic Effects of Tocotrienol .......................................................................79 Takahiro Eitsuka, Kiyotaka Nakagawa, and Teruo Miyazawa Chapter 7 Mechanism of Delta-Tocotrienol on Colorectal Cancer .............................................89 Sayori Wada and Yuji Naito Chapter 8 Targeted Prostate Cancer Chemoprevention Trial with Tocotrienols ......................101 William L. Stone, Victoria P. Ramsauer, Sharon E. Campbell, and Koymangalath Krishnan Chapter 9 δ-Tocotrienol: Demethylated Vitamin E with Hormetic Function and Therapeutic Application in Breast Cancer ........................................................117 Francesca Pilolli, Marta Piroddi, Elisa Pierpaoli, Silvia Ciffolilli, Mauro Provinciali, and Francesco Galli v vi Contents Chapter 10 Mevalonate-Suppressive Tocotrienols for Cancer Chemoprevention and Adjuvant Therapy ..............................................................................................135 Huanbiao Mo, Manal Elfakhani, Anureet Shah, and Hoda Yeganehjoo Chapter 11 Potential of Tocotrienols in Lung Cancer ................................................................151 Xiangming Ji, Arvind Goja, and Smiti V. Gupta Chapter 12 Tocotrienols and Atherosclerosis: Potential in Cardioprotection .............................163 Hapizah Mohd Nawawi Chapter 13 Tocotrienols: Viable Options for Managing Metabolic Diseases.............................185 Chi-Wai Wong Chapter 14 Tocotrienols as Possible Treatments for Obesity ......................................................195 Wong Weng-Yew and Lindsay Brown Chapter 15 Tocotrienols, Inflammation, and Cancer: How Are They Linked?..........................209 Sahdeo Prasad, Bokyung Sung, Sridevi Patchva, Subash C. Gupta, and Bharat B. Aggarwal Chapter 16 1-Modulating NF-κB Activity by Tocotrienols ........................................................225 Mary Kaileh and Ranjan Sen Chapter 17 Antioxidant Action of Tocotrienols ..........................................................................233 Etsuo Niki Chapter 18 Tocotrienol in Human Pancreatic Cancer ................................................................241 Mokenge P. Malafa and Kazim Husain Chapter 19 Tocotrienols in the Treatment of Dyslipidemia ........................................................259 Mark Houston Chapter 20 Tocotrienols and Vascular Effects ............................................................................267 Aida Hanum Ghulam Rasool Chapter 21 Prolongevity Effects of Tocotrienols: Trials in Caenorhabditis elegans .................279 Noriko Kashima, Yukiko Fujikura, Tomomi Komura, Keiji Terao, Barrie Tan, and Yoshikazu Nishikawa Contents vii Chapter 22 Anti-Tyrosinase Activity of Tocotrienol in Skin Blemishes .....................................291 Daniel Yee Leng Yap Chapter 23 Tocotrienols and Bone Health ..................................................................................305 Ima Nirwana Soelaiman, Norazlina Mohamed, Ahmad Nazrun Shuid, and Norliza Muhammad Chapter 24 Tocotrienol and Physiology of Reproduction ...........................................................323 M.H. Rajikin, N. Mokhtar, A. Chatterjee, and Y.S. Kamsani Chapter 25 Tocotrienol and Tocopherol in Stress-Induced Gastric Mucosal Injury ..................333 Nafeeza Mohd Ismail and Ibrahim Abdel Aziz Ibrahim Chapter 26 Structural Modification of Tocotrienols to Improve Bioavailability ........................359 Awantika Singh, Philip J. Breen, Sanchita Ghosh, K. Sree Kumar, Kottayil I. Varughese, Peter A. Crooks, Martin Hauer-Jensen, and Cesar M. Compadre Preface For 90 years, vitamin E research has produced prolific and notable discoveries, including isolation from plants, chemical identifications, and total syntheses. Until the last few decades, however, attention has been given mostly to the biological activities and underlying mechanisms of alpha-tocopherol, which we now know is only one of more than eight vitamin E isomers. Beginning in 1922 with the announcement by Herbert Evans and Katherine Bishop that “the mys- terious substance X” would henceforth be known as vitamin E, “a hitherto unrecognized dietary factor essential for reproduction” [1], there have been many good days for the science of this “birth vitamin.” Following the discovery of vitamin E’s antioxidant function [2], the preponder- ant research in subsequent decades (1965–1985) focused on food protection, an activity offered particularly by, once again, alpha-tocopherol [3]. Tocotrienol discovery came much later, in 1965 [4,5], but existed for almost 20 years as an obscure vitamin E [6]. Vitamin E was erroneously named tocopherol, an error that remained uncor- rected [7] for 30 years—appearing as such in the Merck Index as recently as 1996—until eventu- ally changed in 2001 [8]. Recognition for tocotrienol began to emerge in the early 1980s at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, through the efforts of Asaf Qureshi and Charles Elson. They were the first to delineate the function of tocotrienol to lower cholesterol [9,10]. The mechanism, initially shown by a group at Bristol-Myers Squibb (1992) [11], was validated nearly 15 years later at the University of Texas, Dallas (2006) [12], by studies on the regulation of HMG CoA reductase by delta-tocotrienol and gamma-tocotrienol, but not alpha-tocopherol. This 2006 study was endorsed by Joseph Goldstein and Michael Brown, the 1985 Nobel Prize recipients for the discovery of the LDL receptor [13]. Another noteworthy development took place in 1985 when the ability of tocotri- enol, but not alpha-tocopherol, to inhibit tumors was first shown [14,15] by the research group with Kanki Komiyama of Kitasato Institute, Tokyo, Japan. I personally became very excited about tocotrienols back in 1982. I remember meeting A. Kato who was working on vitamin E and cancer inhibition when almost everyone was talking about “rich vitamin E” in palm oil. I became curious to figure out more about this vitamin E. In 1983, I met Asaf Qureshi and Charles Elson at an annual Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia grant update meeting, and even then they had a hunch that alpha-tocotrienol may not be the strongest tocotrienol for cholesterol reduction. Subsequently, I continued to follow the flow of research and clinical trials while developing patents for extracting tocotrienols from natural sources—initially palm, and then rice and annatto. Tocotrienols have now stepped into the limelight of vitamin E research and have proven to contain some exceptional benefits that are not shared by their “older” tocopherol siblings. Today, the brightest spot for tocotrienol research is in cancer and CVD (Figure F.1). Tocopherols and tocotrienols are powerful antioxidants—known as early as 1937 [2]—for improving food protection and are shown today [16] to potentially protect from cognitive decline. This anti- oxidant vitamin E function never gets old! Emergent fields of tocotrienol research are promis- ing—with many covered in this volume—including angiogenesis, bioavailability, bone health, gastric injury, inflammation, life extension, obesity, radiation protection, skin health, tocopherol interference, and, recently, cognitive impairment. The availability of tocotrienol samples and standards has helped to catalyze the research for- ward. The three major sources of tocotrienols are rice, palm, and annatto. The ratio of tocopherol- to-tocotrienol in each is 50:50, 25:75, and 0.1:99.9, respectively [17]. Tocotrienol’s natural abundance is important as alpha-tocopherol has repeatedly been shown to be ineffective, or worse, to interfere with the function of tocotrienols. ix x Preface Cancer e) v CVD and elati diabetes r s ( n o ati Antioxidant c bli u P Other 1980–1990 1990–2000 2000–2010 2010–2020 Time line (decades) FIGURE F.1 Progress in tocotrienol research. Research published in the last decade warranted the publication of the first-ever tocotrienol book, forwarded by Chandan Sen, indicating a wealth of vitamin E literature (greater than 95%) focused on alpha-tocopherol. Currently, tocotrienols have reached a new measure of research height: more than one-third of all vitamin E tocotrienol research of the last 30 years was published in the last 3 years (2009–2011). The thriving field of tocotrienol research gives ground for this second edi- tion, launched in conjunction with the 103rd Annual AOCS Meeting (April 29, 2012, Long Beach, California). It is an excellent time to continue the vitamin E research with a new focus on tocotri- enols, the late arrival in the vitamin E family. Barrie Tan American River Nutrition Hadley, Massachusetts REFERENCES 1. Evans HM, Bishop KS. On the existence of a hitherto unrecognized dietary factor essential for reproduc- tion. Science 1922 (December 8); LVI: 650–651. 2. Olcott HS, Emerson OH. Antioxidants and autoxidation of fats: The antioxidant properties of tocopher- ols. J Am Chem Soc 1937; 59: 1008–1009. 3. Eitenmillar R, Lee J. Vitamin E: Food Chemistry, Composition and Analysis, Marcel Dekker, New York, 2004. 4. Pennock JF et al., Reassessment of tocopherol chemistry. BBRC 1964; 17: 542–548. 5. Whittle KJ et al., The isolation and properties of delta-tocotrienol from Hevea latex. Biochem J 1966; 100: 138–145. 6. Tan B, Appropriate spectrum vitamin E and new perspectives on desmethyl tocopherols and tocotrienols. J Am Nutr Assoc 2005; 8: 35–42. 7. Merck Index, Tocols: 9631 through 9638, 12th edn. Merck Publishing Group, Rahway, NJ, 1996, pp. 1620–1621. 8. Merck Index, Tocols: 9570 through 9577, 13th edn. Merck Publishing Group, Rahway, NJ, 2001, pp. 1693–1694. 9. Burger WC et al., Effects of different fractions of the barley kernel on the hepatic lipid metabolism of chickens. Lipids 1982; 17: 956–963. 10. Qureshi AA et al., The structure of an inhibitor of cholesterol biosynthesis isolated from barley. J Biol Chem 1986; 261: 10544–10550. 11. Pearce BC et al., Hypercholesterolemic activity of synthetic and natural tocotrienols. J Med Chem 1992; 35: 3595–3606.

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