Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking PDF
Preview Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking
Thought & Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking Fourth Edition Thought & Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking Fourth Edition Diane F. Halpern Berger Institute for Work, Family, & Children Claremont McKenna College LEA LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS 2003 Mahwah, New Jersey London Editor: Bill Webber Textbook Marketing Manager: Marisol Kozlovski Editorial Assistant: Erica Kica Cover Design: Robert Ferine Textbook Production Manager: Paul Smolenski Full-Service & Composition: UG / GGS Information Services, Inc. Text and Cover Printer: Hamilton Printing Company This book was typeset in 10/12 pt. Palatino, Bold, and Italic The heads were typeset in Americana Extra Bold, and Palatino Bold. Copyright © 2003 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microform, retrieval system, or any other means, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers 10 Industrial Avenue Mahwah, New Jersey 07430 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Halpern, Diane F. Thought and knowledge : an introduction to critical thinking / Diane F. Halpern.—4th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN 0-8058-3965-8 (alk. paper)—ISBN 0-8058-3966-6 (alk. paper) 1. Critical thinking. I. Title. BF441 .H25 2002 153—dc21 2002024594 Books published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates are printed on acid-free paper, and their bindings are chosen for strength and durability. Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is dedicated to the loving memory of Dr. Katharine D. Newman— author, professor, friend, aunt, and so much more. She loved people and she loved learning. What better tribute is there? Contents Preface xi 1 Thinking: An Introduction 1 The Need for Critical Thinking Skills 2 Empirical Evidence That Thinking Can Be Improved 10 Learning to Think Critically: A Four Part Model 14 Intelligence and Thinking Skills 21 Learning to Be Intelligent 25 Becoming A Better Thinker: The Quick and Easy Way 26 Thinking about Thinking 27 Critical Thinking: Hollywood Style 32 A Framework for Thinking 34 Chapter Summary 37 Terms to Know 38 2 Memory: The Acquisition, Retention, and Retrieval of Knowledge 39 Memory As the Mediator of Cognitive Processes 40 Acquisition 49 Retention 59 Retrieval 63 Working Memory 66 Metamemory 69 Mnemonics 71 Biases in Memory 79 Long-Term Accuracy Is Sometimes Excellent 80 Applying the Framework 81 Chapter Summary 83 Terms to Know 84 3 The Relationship Between Thought and Language 87 Thought and Language 88 Words and Their Meanings 100 Language: Tool or Master of Thought? 206 Comprehension: The Reason for Language 118 Applying the Framework 232 Chapter Summary 234 Terms to Know 234 Viii CONTENTS 4 Reasoning: Drawing Deductively Valid Conclusions 137 Logical and Psychological 138 Linear Ordering 141 If, Then Statements 146 Combinatorial Reasoning 155 Syllogistic Reasoning 156 Probabilistic Reasoning 173 Reasoning in Everyday Contexts 174 Reasoning Gone Wrong 176 Applying the Framework 177 Chapter Summary 178 Terms to Know 179 5 Analyzing Arguments 182 The Anatomy of an Argument 183 Diagramming the Structure of an Argument 189 Actively Open-Minded Thinking 193 Evaluating the Strength of an Argument 195 How to Analyze an Argument 204 A Template for Writing Sound Arguments 205 Persuasion and Propaganda 207 Explaining as Knowing 209 Applying the Framework 226 Chapter Summary 227 Terms to Know 228 6 Thinking as Hypothesis Testing 231 Understanding Hypothesis Testing 232 Inductive and Deductive Methods 233 Populations and Samples 236 Science versus Science Fiction 241 Determining Cause 243 Thinking About Errors 253 Self-Fulfilling Prophecies 254 Occult Beliefs and the Paranormal 256 Thinking as an Intuitive Scientist 257 Applying the Framework 259 Chapter Summary 260 Terms to Know 261 7 Likelihood and Uncertainty: Understanding Probabilities 264 Probabilistic Nature of the World 265 Factors Affecting Judgments about Likelihood and Uncertainty 270 Using Probability 272 Expected Values 282 CONTENTS iX Subjective Probability 285 Making Probabilistic Decisions 288 Risk 296 Statistical Use and Abuse 300 Applying the Framework 303 Chapter Summary 305 Terms to Know 306 8 Decision Making 3O8 Making Sound Decisions 309 Pitfalls and Pratfalls in Decision Making 325 Evaluating Consequences 327 Elimination by Aspects 330 Preparing A Worksheet 332 Postdecision Commitment and Evaluation 339 Applying the Framework 343 Chapter Summary 345 Terms to Know 345 9 Development of Problem-Solving Skills 348 What Is A Problem? 349 Anatomy of A Problem 350 Stages in Problem Solving 352 Well-Defined and Ill-Defined Problems 355 Problem Planning and Representation 356 Problem-Solving Strategies 372 Problem-Solving Problems 387 Applying the Framework 392 Chapter Summary 392 Terms to Know 393 10 Creative Thinking 396 Defining Creativity 397 Creativity as a Cognitive Process 404 Encouraging Creativity 422 Strategies for Creative Thinking 426 Applying the Framework 425 Chapter Summary 427 Terms to Know 428 11 The Last Word 43O References 432 Author Index 453 Subject Index 46O
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