Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking

480 Pages·2002·32.36 MB·English

by  Diane F. Halpern

Thought & Knowledge:
An Introduction to Critical Thinking
Fourth Edition

Thought & Knowledge:
An Introduction to Critical Thinking
Fourth Edition
Diane F. Halpern
Berger Institute for Work, Family, & Children
Claremont McKenna College
LEA
LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS
2003 Mahwah, New Jersey London
Editor: Bill Webber
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Copyright © 2003 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
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the prior written permission of the publisher.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Halpern, Diane F.
Thought and knowledge : an introduction to critical thinking / Diane F. Halpern.—4th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
ISBN 0-8058-3965-8 (alk. paper)—ISBN 0-8058-3966-6 (alk. paper) 1. Critical thinking. I. Title.
BF441 .H25 2002
153—dc21
2002024594
Books published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates are printed on acid-free
paper, and their bindings are chosen for strength and durability.
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This book is dedicated to the loving memory of
Dr. Katharine D. Newman—
author, professor, friend, aunt, and so much more.
She loved people and she loved learning.
What better tribute is there?

Contents
Preface xi
1
Thinking: An Introduction 1
The Need for Critical Thinking Skills 2
Empirical Evidence That Thinking Can Be Improved 10
Learning to Think Critically: A Four Part Model 14
Intelligence and Thinking Skills 21
Learning to Be Intelligent 25
Becoming A Better Thinker: The Quick and Easy Way 26
Thinking about Thinking 27
Critical Thinking: Hollywood Style 32
A Framework for Thinking 34
Chapter Summary 37
Terms to Know 38
2 Memory: The Acquisition, Retention,
and Retrieval of Knowledge 39
Memory As the Mediator of Cognitive Processes 40
Acquisition 49
Retention 59
Retrieval 63
Working Memory 66
Metamemory 69
Mnemonics 71
Biases in Memory 79
Long-Term Accuracy Is Sometimes Excellent 80
Applying the Framework 81
Chapter Summary 83
Terms to Know 84
3 The Relationship Between Thought and Language 87
Thought and Language 88
Words and Their Meanings 100
Language: Tool or Master of Thought? 206
Comprehension: The Reason for Language 118
Applying the Framework 232
Chapter Summary 234
Terms to Know 234
Viii CONTENTS
4 Reasoning: Drawing Deductively Valid Conclusions 137
Logical and Psychological 138
Linear Ordering 141
If, Then Statements 146
Combinatorial Reasoning 155
Syllogistic Reasoning 156
Probabilistic Reasoning 173
Reasoning in Everyday Contexts 174
Reasoning Gone Wrong 176
Applying the Framework 177
Chapter Summary 178
Terms to Know 179
5 Analyzing Arguments 182
The Anatomy of an Argument 183
Diagramming the Structure of an Argument 189
Actively Open-Minded Thinking 193
Evaluating the Strength of an Argument 195
How to Analyze an Argument 204
A Template for Writing Sound Arguments 205
Persuasion and Propaganda 207
Explaining as Knowing 209
Applying the Framework 226
Chapter Summary 227
Terms to Know 228
6 Thinking as Hypothesis Testing 231
Understanding Hypothesis Testing 232
Inductive and Deductive Methods 233
Populations and Samples 236
Science versus Science Fiction 241
Determining Cause 243
Thinking About Errors 253
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies 254
Occult Beliefs and the Paranormal 256
Thinking as an Intuitive Scientist 257
Applying the Framework 259
Chapter Summary 260
Terms to Know 261
7 Likelihood and Uncertainty:
Understanding Probabilities 264
Probabilistic Nature of the World 265
Factors Affecting Judgments about
Likelihood and Uncertainty 270
Using Probability 272
Expected Values 282
CONTENTS iX
Subjective Probability 285
Making Probabilistic Decisions 288
Risk 296
Statistical Use and Abuse 300
Applying the Framework 303
Chapter Summary 305
Terms to Know 306
8 Decision Making 3O8
Making Sound Decisions 309
Pitfalls and Pratfalls in Decision Making 325
Evaluating Consequences 327
Elimination by Aspects 330
Preparing A Worksheet 332
Postdecision Commitment and Evaluation 339
Applying the Framework 343
Chapter Summary 345
Terms to Know 345
9 Development of Problem-Solving Skills 348
What Is A Problem? 349
Anatomy of A Problem 350
Stages in Problem Solving 352
Well-Defined and Ill-Defined Problems 355
Problem Planning and Representation 356
Problem-Solving Strategies 372
Problem-Solving Problems 387
Applying the Framework 392
Chapter Summary 392
Terms to Know 393
10 Creative Thinking 396
Defining Creativity 397
Creativity as a Cognitive Process 404
Encouraging Creativity 422
Strategies for Creative Thinking 426
Applying the Framework 425
Chapter Summary 427
Terms to Know 428
11 The Last Word 43O
References 432
Author Index 453
Subject Index 46O