Thomas Aquinas

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Thomas Aquinas
1 Biography
“Aquinas” redirects here. For other uses, see Aquinas
(disambiguation).
For the ship that sank in 2013, see MV St. Thomas
1.1 Earlylife(1225–1244)
Aquinas.
ThomaswasborninRoccasecca,intheAquinocountyof
Thomas Aquinas, OP (/əˈkwaɪnəs/; 1225 – 7 March
theKingdomofSicily(present-dayLazioregion, Italy),
1274), also Thomas of Aquin or Aquino, was an
Italian[3][4]Dominicanfriarandpriestandanimmensely c.1225. According to some authors, he was born in the
castle of his father, Landulf of Aquino. Thomas’s fa-
influentialphilosopherandtheologianinthetraditionof
ther did not belong to the most powerful branch of the
scholasticism,withinwhichheisalsoknownasthe"Doc-
tor Angelicus" and "Doctor Communis".[5] “Aquinas” is family and simply held the title miles, while Thomas’s
mother, Theodora, belonged to the Rossi branch of the
from the county of Aquino, an area in which his family
NeapolitanCaracciolofamily.[11]Landulf’sbrotherSini-
heldlanduntil1137. HewasborninRoccasecca,Italy.
bald was abbot of the first Benedictine monastery at
He was the foremost classical proponent of natural the-
MonteCassino. Whiletherestofthefamily’ssonspur-
ology, and the father of Thomism. His influence on suedmilitarycareers,[12]thefamilyintendedforThomas
Western thought is considerable, and much of modern to follow his uncle into the abbacy;[13] this would have
philosophy was conceived in development or opposition
beenanormalcareerpathforayoungersonofsouthern
of his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural Italiannobility.[14]
law,metaphysics,andpoliticaltheory. Unlikemanycur-
rents in the Church of the time,[6] Thomas embraced At the age of five Thomas began his early education at
Monte Cassino but after the military conflict between
several ideas put forward by Aristotle — whom he re-
the Emperor Frederick II and Pope Gregory IX spilled
ferred to as “the Philosopher” — and attempted to syn-
into the abbey in early 1239, Landulf and Theodora
thesize Aristotelian philosophy with the principles of
Christianity.[7]Theworksforwhichheisbestknownare hadThomasenrolledatthestudiumgenerale(university)
recently established by Frederick in Naples.[15] It was
the Summa Theologica and the Summa contra Gentiles.
here that Thomas was probably introduced to Aristotle,
His commentaries on Sacred Scripture and on Aristotle
AverroesandMaimonides,allofwhomwouldinfluence
areanimportantpartofhisbodyofwork. Furthermore,
histheologicalphilosophy.[16]Itwasalsoduringhisstudy
Thomasisdistinguishedforhiseucharistichymns,which
formapartoftheChurch’sliturgy.[8] atNaplesthatThomascameundertheinfluenceofJohn
ofSt. Julian,aDominicanpreacherinNaples,whowas
Thomas is honored as a saint by the Catholic Church
partoftheactiveeffortbytheDominicanordertorecruit
and is held to be the model teacher for those studying devoutfollowers.[17] Therehisteacherinarithmetic,ge-
forthe priesthood, and indeed the highest expression of ometry,astronomy,andmusicwasPetrusdeIbernia.[18]
both natural reason and speculative theology. In mod-
erntimes,underpapaldirectives,thestudyofhisworks
waslongusedasacoreoftherequiredprogramofstudy
forthoseseekingordinationaspriestsordeacons,aswell
asforthoseinreligiousformationandforotherstudents
ofthesacreddisciplines(philosophy,Catholictheology,
churchhistory,liturgy,canonlaw).[9]
AlsohonoredasaDoctoroftheChurch,Thomasiscon-
sideredtheChurch’sgreatesttheologianandphilosopher.
PopeBenedictXVdeclared: “This(Dominican)Order...
acquirednewlusterwhentheChurchdeclaredtheteach-
ing of Thomas to be her own and that Doctor, honored
with the special praises of the Pontiffs, the master and
patronofCatholicschools.”[10]
TheCastleofMonteSanGiovanniCampano
1
2 1 BIOGRAPHY
At the age of nineteen Thomas resolved to join the re- oftheDominicanOrder.[23]
cently founded Dominican Order. Thomas’s change of
heartdidnotpleasehisfamily.[19]Inanattempttoprevent
Theodora’sinterferenceinThomas’schoice,theDomini-
1.2 Paris, Cologne, Albert Magnus, and
cansarrangedtomoveThomastoRome,andfromRome,
firstParisregency(1245–1259)
toParis.[20] However,whileonhisjourneytoRome,per
Theodora’sinstructions,hisbrothersseizedhimashewas
In 1245 Thomas was sent to study at the Faculty of the
drinkingfromaspringandtookhimbacktohisparents
atthecastleofMonteSanGiovanniCampano.[20] ArtsattheUniversityofParis,wherehemostlikelymet
Dominican scholar Albertus Magnus,[24] then the Chair
Thomas was held prisoner for about one year in the of Theology at the College of St. James in Paris.[25]
family castles at Monte San Giovanni and Roccasecca
WhenAlbertuswassentbyhissuperiorstoteachatthe
in an attempt to prevent him from assuming the Do- newstudiumgeneraleatColognein1248,[24]Thomasfol-
minican habit and to push him into renouncing his new
lowedhim,decliningPopeInnocentIV'soffertoappoint
aspiration.[16]PoliticalconcernspreventedthePopefrom himabbotofMonteCassinoasaDominican.[13] Alber-
ordering Thomas’s release, which had the effect of ex-
tus then appointed the reluctant Thomas magister stu-
tendingThomas’sdetention.[21]Thomaspassedthistime dentium.[14] BecauseThomaswasquietanddidn'tspeak
oftrialtutoringhissistersandcommunicatingwithmem-
much, some of his fellow students thought he was slow.
bers of the Dominican Order.[16] Family members be-
ButAlbertuspropheticallyexclaimed: “Youcallhimthe
came desperate to dissuade Thomas, who remained de-
dumbox,butinhisteachinghewillonedayproducesuch
termined to join the Dominicans. At one point, two of abellowingthatitwillbeheardthroughouttheworld.”[13]
hisbrothersresortedtothemeasureofhiringaprostitute
Thomas taught in Cologne as an apprentice professor
to seduce him. According to legend Thomas drove her
(baccalaureusbiblicus),instructingstudentsonthebooks
awaywieldingafireiron. Thatnighttwoangelsappeared
oftheOldTestamentandwritingExpositiosuperIsaiam
tohimashesleptandstrengthenedhisdeterminationto
remaincelibate.[22] ad litteram (Literal Commentary on Isaiah), Postilla su-
perIeremiam(CommentaryonJeremiah)andPostillasu-
perThrenos(CommentaryonLamentations).[26] Thenin
1252 he returned to Paris to study for the master’s de-
greeintheology. HelecturedontheBibleasanappren-
tice professor, and upon becoming a baccalaureus Sen-
tentiarum(bacheloroftheSentences)[27]devotedhisfinal
threeyearsofstudytocommentingonPeterLombard's
Sentences. In the first of his four theological syntheses,
Thomas composed a massive commentary on the Sen-
tencesentitledScriptumsuperlibrosSententiarium(Com-
mentaryontheSentences). Asidefromhismasterswrit-
ings,hewroteDeenteetessentia(OnBeingandEssence)
forhisfellowDominicansinParis.[13]
Inthespringof1256Thomaswasappointedregentmas-
ter in theology at Paris and one of his first works upon
assuming this office was Contra impugnantes Dei cul-
tum et religionem (Against Those Who Assail the Wor-
ship of God and Religion), defending the mendicant or-
ders,whichhadcomeunderattackbyWilliamofSaint-
Amour.[28]Duringhistenurefrom1256to1259,Thomas
wrotenumerousworks,including: Questionesdisputatae
deveritate(DisputedQuestionsonTruth),acollectionof
twenty-nine disputed questions on aspects of faith and
DiegoVelázquez,Aquinasisgirdedbyangelswithamysticalbelt the human condition[29] prepared for the public univer-
ofpurityafterhisproofofchastity sity debates he presided over on Lent and Advent;[30]
Quaestionesquodlibetales(QuodlibetalQuestions), acol-
By 1244, seeing that all of her attempts to dissuade lectionofhisresponsestoquestionsposedtohimbythe
Thomashadfailed,Theodorasoughttosavethefamily’s academic audience;[29] and both Expositio super librum
dignity,arrangingforThomastoescapeatnightthrough Boethii De trinitate (Commentary on Boethius’s De trini-
hiswindow. Inhermind,asecretescapefromdetention tate)andExpositiosuperlibrumBoethiiDehebdomadibus
waslessdamagingthananopensurrendertotheDomini- (CommentaryonBoethius’sDehebdomadibus),commen-
cans. ThomaswassentfirsttoNaplesandthentoRome taries on the works of 6th-century Roman philosopher
tomeetJohannesvonWildeshausen,theMasterGeneral Boethius.[31] By the end of his regency, Thomas was
1.4 ThequarrelsomesecondParisregency(1269–1272) 3
workingononeofhismostfamousworks,Summacontra Aquinas’s students at the Santa Sabina studium provin-
Gentiles.[32] cialeandlaterattheParisstudiumgenerale. InNovember
1268hewaswithAquinasandhisassociateandsecretary
Reginald of Piperno, as they left Viterbo on their way
1.3 Naples,Orvieto,Rome(1259–1268)
toParistobegintheacademicyear.[40] Anotherstudent
ofAquinas’sattheSantaSabinastudiumprovincialewas
In 1259 Thomas completed his first regency at the BlessedTommasellodaPerugia.[41]
studium generale and left Paris so that others in his or-
Aquinas remained at the studium at Santa Sabina from
der could gain this teaching experience. He returned to
1265untilhewascalledbacktoParisin1268forasec-
Napleswherehewasappointedasgeneralpreacherbythe
ondteachingregency.[39] WithhisdepartureforParisin
provincialchapterof29September1260. InSeptember
1268andthepassageoftimethepedagogicalactivitiesof
1261 he was called to Orvieto as conventual lector re-
thestudiumprovincialeatSantaSabinaweredividedbe-
sponsibleforthepastoralformationofthefriarsunableto
tweentwocampuses. AnewconventoftheOrderatthe
attendastudiumgenerale. InOrvietoThomascompleted
ChurchofSantaMariasopraMinervahadamodestbe-
hisSummacontraGentiles,wrotetheCatenaaurea,(The
Golden Chain),[33] and produced works for Pope Urban ginningin1255asacommunityforwomenconverts,but
grewrapidlyinsizeandimportanceafterbeinggivenover
IVsuchastheliturgyforthenewlycreatedfeastofCor-
totheDominicansfriarsin1275.[42]In1288thetheology
pusChristiandtheContraerroresgraecorum(Againstthe
ErrorsoftheGreeks).[32] componentoftheprovincialcurriculumfortheeducation
ofthefriarswasrelocatedfromtheSantaSabinastudium
In February 1265 the newly elected Pope Clement IV
provincialetothestudiumconventualeatSantaMariaso-
summonedAquinastoRometoserveaspapaltheologian.
pra Minerva, which was redesignated as a studium par-
ThissameyearhewasorderedbytheDominicanChap- ticularis theologiae.[43] This studium was transformed in
ter of Agnani[34] to teach at the studium conventuale at
the16thcenturyintotheCollegeofSaintThomas(Latin:
theRomanconventofSantaSabina,foundedsomeyears
CollegiumDiviomæ). Inthe20thcenturythecollege
before,in1222.[35]ThestudiumatSantaSabinanowbe-
wasrelocatedtotheconventofSaintsDominicandSix-
cameanexperimentfortheDominicans,theOrder’sfirst
tusandwastransformedintothePontificalUniversityof
studiumprovinciale, anintermediateschoolbetweenthe
SaintThomasAquinas,Angelicum.
studiumconventualeandthestudiumgenerale. “Priorto
thistimetheRomanProvincehadofferednospecialized
education of any sort, no arts, no philosophy; only sim- 1.4 ThequarrelsomesecondParisregency
pleconventschools,withtheirbasiccoursesintheology
(1269–1272)
for resident friars, were functioning in Tuscany and the
meridionale during the first several decades of the or-
In1268theDominicanOrderassignedThomastobere-
der’s life. But the new studium at Santa Sabina was to
gentmasterattheUniversityofParisforasecondtime,a
be a school for the province”, a studium provinciale.[36]
positionhehelduntilthespringof1272. Partoftherea-
TolomeodaLucca,anassociateandearlybiographerof
son for this sudden reassignment appears to have arisen
Aquinas,tellsusthatattheSantaSabinastudiumAquinas
fromtheriseof"Averroism"or“radicalAristotelianism"
taughtthefullrangeofphilosophicalsubjects,bothmoral
in the universities. In response to these perceived evils,
andnatural.[37]
Thomaswrotetwoworks,oneofthembeingDeunitate
While at the Santa Sabina studium provinciale Thomas intellectus, contra Averroistas (On the Unity of Intellect,
began his most famous work the Summa theologiae,[33] against the Averroists) in which he blasts Averroism as
whichheconceivedofspecificallyassuitedtobeginning incompatiblewithChristiandoctrine.[44] Duringhissec-
students: “Because a doctor of catholic truth ought not ond regency, he finished the second part of the Summa
only to teach the proficient, but to him pertains also to andwroteDevirtutibusandDeaeternitatemundi,[39] the
instructbeginners. AstheApostlesaysin1Corinthians latter of which dealt with controversial Averroist and
3: 1-2, as to infants in Christ, I gave you milk to drink, Aristotelian beginninglessness of the world.[45] Disputes
not meat, our proposed intention in this work is to con- with some important Franciscans such as Bonaventure
vey those things that pertain to the Christian religion in and John Peckham conspired to make his second re-
a way that is fitting to the instruction of beginners.”[38] gency much more difficult and troubled than the first.
While there he also wrote a variety of other works like A year before Thomas re-assumed the regency at the
hisunfinishedCompendiumTheologiaeandResponsioad 1266–67 Paris disputations, Franciscan master William
fr. Ioannem Vercellensem de articulis 108 sumptis ex ofBaglioneaccusedThomasofencouragingAverroists,
opere Petri de Tarentasia (Reply to Brother John of Ver- callinghimthe“blindleaderoftheblind”. Thomascalled
celli Regarding 108 Articles Drawn from the Work of theseindividualsthemurmurantes(Grumblers).[45]Inre-
Peter of Tarentaise).[31] In his position as head of the ality,ThomaswasdeeplydisturbedbythespreadofAver-
studiumAquinasconductedaseriesofimportantdisputa- roismandwasangeredwhenhediscoveredSigerofBra-
tionsonthepowerofGod,whichhecompiledintohisDe bant teaching Averroistic interpretations of Aristotle to
potentia.[39] Nicholas Brunacci [1240-1322] was among Parisianstudents.[46] On10December1270,thebishop
4 1 BIOGRAPHY
of Paris, Etienne Tempier, issued an edict condemn- not, because all that I have written seems like straw to
ingthirteenAristotlelianandAverroisticpropositionsas me”[51](mihivideturutpalea).[52]Whatexactlytriggered
hereticalandexcommunicatinganyonewhocontinuedto Thomas’s change in behavior is believed by Catholics
supportthem.[47] Manyintheecclesiasticalcommunity, to have been some kind of supernatural experience of
the so-called Augustinians, were fearful that this intro- God.[53] After taking to his bed, he did recover some
ductionofAristotelianismandthemoreextremeAverro- strength.[54]
ismmightsomehowcontaminatethepurityoftheChris-
In1054theGreatSchismhadoccurredbetweentheLatin
tian faith. In what appears to be an attempt to counter-
church following the Pope (later known as the Roman
actthegrowingfearofAristotelianthought,Thomascon-
Catholic Church) in the West, and the other four patri-
ducted a series of disputations between 1270 and 1272:
archates in the East (known as the Orthodox Church).
Devirtutibusincommuni(OnVirtuesinGeneral),Devir-
Looking to find a way to reunite the Eastern Orthodox
tutibus cardinalibus (On Cardinal Virtues), De spe (On
ChurchandtheRomanCatholicChurch, PopeGregory
Hope).[48]
X convened the Second Council of Lyon to be held on
1 May 1274 and summoned Thomas to attend.[55] At
1.5 Finaldaysand“straw”(1272–1274) the meeting, Thomas’s work for Pope Urban IV con-
cerning the Greeks, Contra errores graecorum, was to
be presented.[56] On his way to the Council, riding on
a donkey along the Appian Way,[55] he struck his head
on the branch of a fallen tree and became seriously ill
again. HewasthenquicklyescortedtoMonteCassinoto
convalesce.[54]Afterrestingforawhile,hesetoutagain,
butstoppedattheCistercianFossanovaAbbeyafteragain
fallingill.[57]Themonksnursedhimforseveraldays,and
as he received his last rites he prayed: “I receive Thee,
ransomofmysoul. ForloveofTheehaveIstudiedand
keptvigil,toiled,preachedandtaught....”[58] Hediedon
7March1274[57] whilegivingcommentaryontheSong
ofSongs.[59]
1.6 Claimsoflevitation
Seealso: Saintsandlevitation
For centuries, there have been recurring claims that
Thomas had the ability to levitate. For example, G. K.
TriumphofSt.ThomasAquinas,byAndreadiBonaiuto. Chesterton wrote that, “His experiences included well-
attestedcasesoflevitationinecstasy;andtheBlessedVir-
In1272ThomastookleavefromtheUniversityofParis gin appeared to him, comforting him with the welcome
when the Dominicans from his home province called newsthathewouldneverbeaBishop.”[60]
upon him to establish a studium generale wherever he
liked and staff it as he pleased. He chose to establish
the institution in Naples, and moved there to take his 1.7 Condemnationof1277
post as regent master.[39] He took his time at Naples to
work on the third part of the Summa while giving lec- Seealso: Condemnationsof1210–1277
turesonvariousreligioustopics. On6December1273at
theDominicanconventofNaplesintheChapelofSaint
In1277ÉtienneTempier,thesamebishopofPariswho
NicholasafterMatinsThomaslingeredandwasseenby
had issued the condemnation of 1270, issued another
thesacristanDomenicofCasertatobelevitatinginprayer
more extensive condemnation. One aim of this con-
withtearsbeforean iconofthecrucifiedChrist. Christ
demnationwastoclarifythatGod’sabsolutepowertran-
saidtoThomas,“Youhavewrittenwellofme,Thomas.
scendedanyprinciplesoflogicthatAristotleorAverroes
What reward would you have for your labor?" Thomas
might place on it.[61] More specifically, it contained a
responded, “Nothing but you, Lord.” [49][50] After this
list of 219 propositions that the bishop had determined
exchangesomethinghappened,butThomasneverspoke
toviolatetheomnipotenceofGod, andincludedinthis
of it or wrote it down. Because of what he saw, he
listweretwentyThomisticpropositions. Theirinclusion
abandoned his routine and refused to dictate to his so-
badlydamagedThomas’sreputationformanyyears.[62]
cius Reginald of Piperno. When Reginald begged him
to get back to work, Thomas replied: “Reginald, I can- In the Divine Comedy, Dante sees the glorified soul of
5
Thomas in the Heaven of the Sun with the other great on28January.
exemplars of religious wisdom.[63] Dante asserts that
Thomas died by poisoning, on the order of Charles of
Anjou;[64] Villani (ix. 218) cites this belief, and the 2 Philosophy
Anonimo Fiorentino describes the crime and its motive.
ButthehistorianLudovicoAntonioMuratorireproduces
Mainarticle: Thomism
the account made by one of Thomas’s friends, and this
versionofthestorygivesnohintoffoulplay.[65]
Thomas was a theologian and a Scholastic
Thomas’s theology had begun its rise to prestige. Two
philosopher.[70] However, he never considered him-
centuries later, in 1567, Pope Pius V proclaimed St.
self a philosopher, and criticized philosophers, whom
ThomasAquinasaDoctoroftheChurchandrankedhis
he saw as pagans, for always “falling short of the
feastwiththoseofthefourgreatLatinfathers: Ambrose,
true and proper wisdom to be found in Christian
Augustine of Hippo, Jerome and Gregory. However, in
revelation.”[71] With this in mind, Thomas did have
thesameperiodtheCouncilofTrentstillturnedtoDuns
respect for Aristotle, so much so that in the Summa, he
Scotus before Thomas as a source of arguments in de-
often cites Aristotle simply as “the Philosopher.” Much
fenceoftheChurch. EventhoughDunsScotuswasmore
of his work bears upon philosophical topics, and in this
consultedattheCouncilofTrent,Thomashadthehonor
sense may be characterized as philosophical. Thomas’s
ofhavinghisSummatheologiaeplacedonthealtaralong-
sidetheBibleandtheDecretals.[62][66] philosophical thought has exerted enormous influence
on subsequent Christian theology, especially that of the
Inhisencyclicalof4August1879,PopeLeoXIIIstated
Catholic Church, extending to Western philosophy in
that Thomas’s theology was a definitive exposition of
general. Thomas stands as a vehicle and modifier of
Catholic doctrine. Thus, he directed the clergy to take
Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. In fact, Thomas
theteachingsofThomasasthebasisoftheirtheological
modifiedbothAristotelianismandNeoplatonismbyway
positions. Leo XIII also decreed that all Catholic sem-
of heavy reliance on the Pseudo-Dionysius, which was
inaries and universities must teach Thomas’s doctrines,
anapologeticalconcoctionofanearlierera. Thissource
and where Thomas did not speak on a topic, the teach-
has arguably been assessed not as a communicator
erswere“urgedtoteachconclusionsthatwerereconcil-
of tradition, but as a polemicist, who tried to alter
ablewithhisthinking.”In1880, SaintThomasAquinas
Neo-Platonic tradition in a novel way for the Christian
wasdeclaredpatronofallCatholiceducationalestablish-
world that would make notions of complicated Divine
ments.
Hierarchies more of an emphasis than notions of direct
relationship with the figure of Christ as Mediator. [72]
Indeed a number of Catholic sources contend that
1.8 Canonization Thomas was influenced more by this concoction than
anyothersource,includingAristotle. [73]
Whenthedevil’sadvocateathiscanonizationprocessob-
jected that there were no miracles, one of the cardinals
2.1 CommentariesonAristotle
answered, "Tot miraculis, quot articulis"—"there are as
many miracles (in his life) as articles (in his Summa)",
viz.,thousands.[66]FiftyyearsafterthedeathofThomas, Thomas wrote several important commentaries on
on18July1323,PopeJohnXXII,seatedinAvignon,pro- Aristotle's works, including On the Soul, Nicomachean
nouncedThomasasaint.[67] Ethics and Metaphysics. His work is associated with
William of Moerbeke's translations of Aristotle from
InamonasteryatNaples, nearthecathedralofSt. Jan-
GreekintoLatin.
uarius,acellinwhichhesupposedlylivedisstillshown
tovisitors. HisremainswereplacedintheChurchofthe
JacobinsinToulouseon28January1369. Between1789
2.2 Epistemology
and1974,theywereheldintheBasiliquedeSaint-Sernin,
Toulouse. In1974,theywerereturnedtotheChurchof
Seealso: Doubletruth
theJacobins,wheretheyhaveremainedeversince.
When he was canonized, his feast day was inserted in
Thomas believed “that for the knowledge of any truth
theGeneralRomanCalendarforcelebrationon7March,
whatsoevermanneedsdivinehelp,thattheintellectmay
the day of his death. Since this date commonly falls
bemovedbyGodtoitsact.”[74]However,hebelievedthat
withinLent,the1969revisionofthecalendarmovedhis
human beings have the natural capacity to know many
memorialto28January,thedateofthetranslationofhis
thingswithoutspecialdivinerevelation,eventhoughsuch
relicstoToulouse.[68][69]
revelation occurs from time to time, “especially in re-
Thomasishonoredwithafeastdayintheliturgicalyear gard to such (truths) as pertain to faith.”[75] But this is
oftheEpiscopalChurchintheUnitedStatesofAmerica thelightthatisgiventomanbyGodaccordingtoman’s
6 2 PHILOSOPHY
nature: “Noweveryformbestowedoncreatedthingsby andmoralvirtuesissomethingcomprehensible
Godhaspowerforadeterminedact[uality],whichitcan to human reason. Wherefore the theological
bringaboutinproportiontoitsownproperendowment; virtuesarespecificallydistinctfromthemoral
andbeyondwhichitispowerless,exceptbyasuperadded andintellectualvirtues.[81]
form,aswatercanonlyheatwhenheatedbythefire. And
thusthehumanunderstandinghasaform,viz. intelligible
ThomasAquinaswrote“GreedisasinagainstGod,just
light,whichofitselfissufficientforknowingcertainin-
as all mortal sins, in as much as man condemns things
telligiblethings,viz. thosewecancometoknowthrough
eternalforthesakeoftemporalthings.”.
thesenses.”[75]
Furthermore, Thomas distinguished four kinds of law:
eternal, natural, human, and divine. Eternal law is the
2.3 Ethics decreeofGodthatgovernsallcreation. Itis,“ThatLaw
which is the Supreme Reason cannot be understood to
Seealso: Christianethics beotherwisethanunchangeableandeternal.”[82]Natural
law is the human “participation” in the eternal law and
isdiscoveredbyreason.[83] Naturallawisbasedon"first
Thomas’sethicsarebasedontheconceptof“firstprinci-
principles":
plesofaction.”[76]InhisSummatheologiae,hewrote:
. . . thisisthefirstpreceptofthelaw,that
Virtue denotes a certain perfection of a
goodistobedoneandpromoted,andevilisto
power. Nowathing’sperfectionisconsidered
be avoided. All other precepts of the natural
chiefly in regard to its end. But the end of
lawarebasedonthis. . .[84]
power is act. Wherefore power is said to be
perfect, according as it is determinate to its
act.[77] Whetherthenaturallawcontainsseveralprecepts,orone
onlyisexplainedbyAquinas”,Alltheinclinationsofany
Aquinasemphasizedthat“Synderesisissaidtobethelaw partswhatsoeverofhumannature,e.g.,oftheconcupis-
ofourmind,becauseitisahabitcontainingtheprecepts cible and irascible parts, in so far as they are ruled by
ofthenaturallaw,whicharethefirstprinciplesofhuman reason,belongtothenaturallaw,andarereducedtoone
actions.”[78][79] firstprecept,asstatedabove: sothatthepreceptsofthe
naturallawaremanyinthemselves,butarebasedonone
AccordingtoAquinas"…allactsofvirtueareprescribed commonfoundation.”[85]
bythenaturallaw: sinceeachone’sreasonnaturallydic-
tates to him to act virtuously. But if we speak of virtu- The desires to live and to procreate are counted by
ous acts, considered in themselves, i.e., in their proper Thomas among those basic (natural) human values on
species, thus not all virtuous acts are prescribed by the whichallhumanvaluesarebased. AccordingtoThomas,
naturallaw: formanythingsaredonevirtuously,towhich all human tendencies are geared towards real human
naturedoesnotinclineatfirst;butwhich,throughthein- goods. Inthiscase,thehumannatureinquestionismar-
quiryofreason,havebeenfoundbymentobeconductive riage, the total gift of oneself to another that ensures a
to well living.” Therefore, we must determine if we are familyforchildrenandafutureformankind.[86]Toclar-
speakingofvirtuousactsasundertheaspectofvirtuous ify for Christian believers, Thomas defined love as “to
orasanactinitsspecies.[80] willthegoodofanother.”[87]
Thomas defined the four cardinal virtues as prudence, ConcerningtheHumanLaw,Aquinasconcludes,"...that
temperance, justice, and fortitude. The cardinal virtues just as, in the speculative reason, from naturally known
are natural and revealed in nature, and they are bind- indemonstrableprinciples,wedrawtheconclusionsofthe
ing on everyone. There are, however, three theological varioussciences,theknowledgeofwhichisnotimparted
virtues: faith,hope,andcharity. Aquinasalsodescribes tousbynature,butacquiredbytheeffortsofreason,so
the virtues as imperfect (incomplete) and perfect (com- tooitisfromthepreceptsofthenaturallaw,asfromgen-
plete) virtues. A perfect virtue is any virtue with char- eralandindemonstrableprinciples,thatthehumanreason
ity,charitycompletesacardinalvirtue. Anon-Christian needstoproceedtothemoreparticulardeterminationof
can display courage, but it would be courage with tem- certainmatters. Theseparticulardeterminations,devised
perance. AChristianwoulddisplaycouragewithcharity. by human reason, are called human laws, provided the
These are somewhat supernatural and are distinct from otheressentialconditionsoflawbeobserved....”Human
othervirtuesintheirobject,namely,God: law is positive law: the natural law applied by govern-
mentstosocieties.[88]
Now the object of the theological virtues Naturalandhumanlawisnotadequatealone. Theneed
isGodHimself, Whoisthelastendofall, as for human behavior to be directed made it necessary to
surpassing the knowledge of our reason. On haveDivinelaw. Divinelawisthespeciallyrevealedlaw
the other hand, the object of the intellectual inthescriptures. Aquinasquotes,“TheApostlesays(He-
7
brews 7.12): The priesthood being translated, it is nec- thesamenatureasuniversals. Yet,anysubstancethatun-
essary that a translation also be made of the law. But derstands universals may not be a matter-form compos-
thepriesthoodistwofold,asstatedinthesamepassage, ite. So, humans have rational souls, which are abstract
viz,theleviticalpriesthood,andthepriesthoodofChrist. forms independent of the body. But a human being is
ThereforetheDivinelawistwofold,namely,theOldLaw one existing, single material substance that comes from
andtheNewLaw.”[89] bodyandsoul:thatiswhatThomasmeanswhenhewrites
that“somethingoneinnaturecanbeformedfromanin-
Thomas also greatly influenced Catholic understandings
tellectualsubstanceandabody”,and“athingoneinna-
ofmortalandvenialsins.
ture does not result from two permanent entities unless
ThomasAquinas,referstoanimalsasdumbandthatthe onehasthecharacterofsubstantialformandtheotherof
naturalorderhasdeclaredanimalsformansuse. Thomas matter.”[97]
deniedthathumanbeingshaveanydutyofcharitytoan-
The soul is a "substantial form"; it is a part of a sub-
imalsbecausetheyarenotpersons. Otherwise,itwould
stance, but it is not a substance by itself. Nevertheless,
be unlawful to use them for food. But this does not
the soul exists separately from the body, and continues,
give humans the license to be cruel to them, for “cruel
afterdeath,inmanyofthecapacitieswethinkofashu-
habits might carry over into our treatment of human
man. Substantialformiswhatmakesathingamember
beings.”[90][91]
ofthespeciestowhichitbelongs,andsubstantialformis
Thomascontributedtoeconomicthoughtasanaspectof also the structure or configuration that provides the ob-
ethics and justice. He dealt with the concept of a just jectwiththeabilitiesthatmaketheobjectwhatitis. For
price,normallyitsmarketpriceoraregulatedpricesuf- humans,thoseabilitiesarethoseoftherationalanimal.
ficient to cover seller costs of production. He argued it
These distinctions can be better understood in the
was immoral for sellers to raise their prices simply be-
light of Aquinas’s understanding of matter and form,
causebuyerswereinpressingneedforaproduct.[92][93]
a hylomorphic (“matter/form”) theory derived from
Aristotle. In any given substance, matter and form are
necessarilyunited,andeachisanecessaryaspectofthat
2.4 Psychology
substance. However, they are conceptually separable.
Matterrepresentswhatischangeableaboutthesubstance
Aquinasmaintainsthatahumanisasinglematerialsub-
–whatispotentiallysomethingelse. Forexample,bronze
stance. Heunderstandsthesoulastheformofthebody,
matter is potentially a statue, or also potentially a cym-
which makes a human being the composite of the two.
bal. Matter must be understood as the matter of some-
Thus, only living, form-matter composites can truly be
thing. Incontrast,formiswhatdeterminessomepartic-
calledhuman;deadbodiesare“human”onlyanalogously.
ular chunk of matter to be a specific substance and no
One actually existing substance comes from body and
other. When Aquinas says that the human body is only
soul. A human is a single material substance, but still
partly composed of matter, he means the material body
shouldbeunderstoodashavinganimmaterialsoul,which
isonlypotentiallyahumanbeing. Thesouliswhatactu-
continuesafterbodilydeath.
alizesthatpotentialintoanexistinghumanbeing. Con-
Ultimately, humans are animals; the animal genus is sequently,thefactthatahumanbodyislivehumantissue
body;bodyismaterialsubstance. Whenembodied,ahu- entailsthatahumansouliswhollypresentineachpartof
man person is an “individual substance in the category thehuman.
rationalanimal.”[94] The body belongsto the essence of
WalterFreemanproposesthatThomismisthephilosoph-
ahumanbeing. InhisSummatheologiaeAquinasclearly
icalsystemexplainingcognitionthatismostcompatible
stateshispositiononthenatureofthesoul;definingitas
withneurodynamics,ina2008articleinthejournalMind
“thefirstprincipleoflife.”[95] Thesoulisnotcorporeal,
and Matter entitled “Nonlinear Brain Dynamics and In-
or a body; it is the act of a body. Because the intellect
tentionAccordingtoAquinas.”[98]
is incorporeal, it does not use thebodily organs, as “the
operationofanythingfollowsthemodeofitsbeing.”[96]
The human soul is perfected in the body, but does not
3 Theology
dependonthebody,becausepartofitsnatureisspiritual.
Inthisway,thesouldiffersfromotherforms,whichare
only found in matter, and thus depend on matter. The
Seealso: WorksbyThomasAquinas
soul,asformofthebody,doesnotdependonmatterin
Thomas viewed theology, or the sacred doctrine, as
thisway.
a science,[53] the raw material data of which consists
The soul is not matter, not even incorporeal or spiritual of written scripture and the tradition of the Catholic
matter. Ifitwere,itwouldnotbeabletounderstanduni- Church. These sources of data were produced by the
versals,whichareimmaterial. Areceiverreceivesthings self-revelationofGodtoindividualsandgroupsofpeo-
accordingtothereceiver’sownnature,soinorderforsoul ple throughout history. Faith and reason, while distinct
(receiver)tounderstand(receive)universals,itmusthave butrelated,arethetwoprimarytoolsforprocessingthe
8 3 THEOLOGY
bededuced.[99]
3.1.1 PreservingNaturewithinGrace
Revealed knowledge does not negate the truth and the
completenessofhumanscienceashuman, itfurtheres-
tablishes them. First, it grants that the same things can
be treated from two different perspectives with out one
canceling the other; thus there can be two sciences of
God. Second, itprovidesthebasisforthetwosciences:
one functions through the power of the light of natural
reason, the other through the light of divine revelation.
Moreover,theycan,atleasttosomeextent,keepoutof
eachother’swaybecausetheydiffer'accordingtogenus.'
Sacreddoctrineisafundamentallydifferentkindofthing
fromthetheologywhichisapartofphilosophy(STI.1.1
ad2).
Faithandreasoncomplementratherthancontradicteach
other,eachgivingdifferentviewsofthesameTruth.
3.2 Creation
17thcenturysculptureofThomasAquinas
As a Catholic Thomas believed that God is the “maker
of heaven and earth, of all that is visible and invisi-
dataoftheology. Thomasbelievedbothwerenecessary
ble.”LikeAristotle,Thomaspositedthatlifecouldform
— or, rather, that the confluence of both was necessary
fromnon-livingmaterialorplantlife,atheoryofongoing
— for one to obtain true knowledge of God. Thomas
abiogenesisknownasspontaneousgeneration:
blendedGreekphilosophyandChristiandoctrinebysug-
gestingthatrationalthinkingandthestudyofnature,like
revelation,werevalidwaystounderstandtruthspertain- Since the generation of one thing is the
ingtoGod. AccordingtoThomas, Godrevealshimself corruptionofanother,itwasnotincompatible
through nature, so to study nature is to study God. The withthefirstformationofthings,thatfromthe
ultimategoalsoftheology,inThomas’smind,aretouse corruptionofthelessperfectthemoreperfect
reason to grasp the truth about God and to experience shouldbegenerated. Henceanimalsgenerated
salvationthroughthattruth. fromthecorruptionofinanimatethings,orof
plants,mayhavebeengeneratedthen.[100]
3.1 Revelation Additionally Thomas considered Empedocles's theory
thatvariousmutatedspeciesemergedatthedawnofCre-
Thomasbelievedthattruthisknownthroughreason(nat- ation. Thomasreasonedthatthesespeciesweregenerated
ural revelation) and faith (supernatural revelation). Su- throughmutationsinanimalsperm,andarguedthatthey
pernatural revelation has its origin in the inspiration of werenotunintendedbynature;rather,suchspecieswere
theHolySpiritandismadeavailablethroughtheteaching simplynotintendedforperpetualexistence. Thatdiscus-
oftheprophets,summedupinHolyScripture,andtrans- sionisfoundinhiscommentaryonAristotle’sPhysics:
mitted by the Magisterium, the sum of which is called
“Tradition”. Natural revelation is the truth available to
The same thing is true of those sub-
allpeoplethroughtheirhumannatureandpowersofrea-
stanceswhichEmpedoclessaidwereproduced
son. Forexample,hefeltthisappliedtorationalwaysto
atthebeginningoftheworld,suchasthe‘ox-
knowtheexistenceofGod.
progeny’,i.e.,halfoxandhalfman. Forifsuch
Though one may deduce the existence of God and his thingswerenotabletoarriveatsomeendand
Attributes(Unity,Truth,Goodness,Power,Knowledge) finalstateofnaturesothattheywouldbepre-
through reason, certain specifics may be known only servedinexistence,thiswasnotbecausenature
throughthespecialrevelationofGodinJesusChrist. The did not intend this [a final state], but because
majortheologicalcomponentsofChristianity,suchasthe theywerenotcapableofbeingpreserved. For
TrinityandtheIncarnation,arerevealedintheteachings they were not generated according to nature,
oftheChurchandtheScripturesandmaynototherwise butbythecorruptionofsomenaturalprinciple,
3.4 NatureofGod 9
asitnowalsohappensthatsomemonstrousoff- A war is not legitimate or illegitimate simply based on
springaregeneratedbecauseofthecorruption its original motivation: it must comply with a series of
ofseed.[101] additionalrequirements:
(cid:15) The response must be commensurate to the evil;
3.3 Justwar
moreviolencethanisstrictlynecessarywouldbeun-
just.
Seealso: JustWar
(cid:15) Governingauthoritiesdeclarewar,buttheirdecision
isnotsufficientcausetobeginawar. Ifthepeople
AugustineofHippoagreedstronglywiththeconventional
opposeawar,thenitisillegitimate. Thepeoplehave
wisdom of his time, that Christians should be pacifists
arighttodeposeagovernmentthatiswaging,oris
philosophically, but that they should use defense as a
abouttowage,anunjustwar.
meansofpreservingpeaceinthelongrun. Forexample,
heroutinelyarguedthatpacifismdidnotpreventthede- (cid:15) Once war has begun, there remain moral limits to
fenceofinnocents. Inessence,thepursuitofpeacemight
action. Forexample, onemaynotattackinnocents
requirefightingtopreserveitinthelong-term.[102] Such
orkillhostages.
a war must not be preemptive, but defensive, to restore
peace.[103] (cid:15) The belligerents must exhaust all options for dia-
logueandnegotiationbeforeundertakingawar;war
Clearly, some special characteristics sets apart “war”
isonlylegitimateasalastresort.
from “schism”, “brawling”, and “sedition.” While it
wouldbecontradictorytospeakofa“justschism”,a“just
brawling”ora“justsedition”(thethreetermsdenotesin Under this doctrine, expansionist wars, wars of pillage,
and sin only) “war” alone permits sub classification into warstoconvertinfidelsorpagans,andwarsforgloryare
good and bad kinds. Curiously, however, Aquinas does allinherentlyunjust.
notworkupaterminologicalcontrastbetween“just”and
“unjust”war. [104]ThomasAquinas,centurieslater,used
3.4 NatureofGod
the authority of Augustine’s arguments in an attempt to
definetheconditionsunderwhichawarcouldbejust.[105]
ThomasbelievedthattheexistenceofGodisself-evident
Helaidtheseoutinhishistoricwork,SummaTheologica:
initself,butnottous. “ThereforeIsaythatthisproposi-
tion, “Godexists”, ofitselfisself-evident, forthepred-
(cid:15) First, war must occur for a good and just purpose
icate is the same as the subject.... Now because we do
ratherthanthepursuitofwealthorpower.
notknowtheessenceofGod,thepropositionisnotself-
(cid:15) Second,justwarmustbewagedbyaproperlyinsti- evidenttous;butneedstobedemonstratedbythingsthat
aremoreknowntous,thoughlessknownintheirnature
tutedauthoritysuchasthestate.
—namely,byeffects.”[107]
(cid:15) Third, peace must be a central motive even in the
ThomasbelievedthattheexistenceofGodcanbedemon-
midstofviolence.[106]
strated. Briefly in the Summa theologiae and more ex-
tensively in the Summa contra Gentiles, he considered
3.3.1 TheSchoolofSalamanca in great detail five arguments for the existence of God,
widelyknownasthequinqueviae(FiveWays).
The School of Salamanca expanded Aquinas’s under- Fordetailedanalysisofthefiveproofs,seeExistenceof
standing of natural law and just war. Given that war is God
one of the worst evils suffered by mankind, the adher- Fortheoriginaltextofthefiveproofs,seequinqueviae
ents of the School reasoned that it ought to be resorted
toonlywhenitwasnecessarytopreventanevengreater
evil. Adiplomaticagreementispreferable, evenforthe
1. Motion: Some things undoubtedly move, though
more powerful party, before a war is started. Examples
cannot cause their own motion. Since, as Thomas
of"justwar"are:
believed,therecanbenoinfinitechainofcausesof
motion, theremustbeaFirstMovernotmovedby
(cid:15) Inself-defense,aslongasthereisareasonablepossi- anythingelse,andthisiswhateveryoneunderstands
bilityofsuccess. Iffailureisaforegoneconclusion, byGod.
thenitisjustawastefulspillingofblood.
2.
(cid:15) Preventive war against a tyrant who is about to at-
3. Causation: As in the case of motion, nothing can
tack.
causeitself,andaninfinitechainofcausationisim-
(cid:15) Wartopunishaguiltyenemy. possible,sotheremustbeaFirstCause,calledGod.
10 3 THEOLOGY
4. It is important to note the analogous nature of law in
Thomas’slegalphilosophy. Naturallawisaninstanceor
5. Existence of necessary and the unnecessary: Our
instantiation of eternal law. Because natural law is that
experienceincludesthingscertainlyexistingbutap-
which human beings determine according to their own
parentlyunnecessary. Noteverythingcanbeunnec-
nature(asrationalbeings),disobeyingreasonisdisobey-
essary, for then once there was nothing and there
ingnaturallawandeternallaw. Thuseternallawislog-
wouldstillbenothing. Therefore,wearecompelled
icallypriortoreceptionofeither“naturallaw”(thatde-
tosupposesomethingthatexistsnecessarily,having
termined by reason) or “divine law” (that found in the
thisnecessityonlyfromitself;infactitselfthecause
Old and New Testaments). In other words, God’s will
forotherthingstoexist.
extendstoboth reasonandrevelation. Sinisabrogating
either one’s own reason, on the one hand, or revelation
6.
ontheother,andissynonymouswith“evil”(privationof
7. Gradation: If we can notice a gradation in things good,orprivatioboni[116]). Thomas,likeallScholastics,
in the sense that some things are more hot, good, generally argued that the findings of reason and data of
etc.,theremustbeasuperlativethatisthetruestand revelation cannot conflict, so both are a guide to God’s
noblestthing,andsomostfullyexisting. Thisthen, willforhumanbeings.
wecallGod-->noteThomasdoesnotascribeactual
qualitiestoGodHimself.
3.5 NatureoftheTrinity
8.
ThomasarguedthatGod, whileperfectlyunited, alsois
9. Orderedtendenciesofnature: Adirectionofactions
perfectlydescribedbyThreeInterrelatedPersons. These
to an end is noticed in all bodies following natural
three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) are con-
laws. Anything without awareness tends to a goal
stituted by their relations within the essence of God.
under the guidance of one who is aware. This we
Thomaswrotethattheterm“Trinity”“doesnotmeanthe
callGod-->Notethatevenwhenweguideobjects,
relationsthemselvesofthePersons,butratherthenumber
in Thomas’s view the source of all our knowledge
ofpersonsrelatedtoeachother; andhenceitisthatthe
comesfromGodaswell.[108]
wordinitselfdoesnotexpressregardtoanother.”[117]The
FathergeneratestheSon(ortheWord)bytherelationof
ConcerningthenatureofGod,Thomasfeltthebestap-
self-awareness. Thiseternalgenerationthenproducesan
proach,commonlycalledthevianegativa,istoconsider
eternalSpirit“whoenjoysthedivinenatureastheLove
whatGodisnot. Thisledhimtoproposefivestatements
ofGod,theLoveoftheFatherfortheWord.”
aboutthedivinequalities:
ThisTrinityexistsindependentlyfromtheworld. Ittran-
scendsthecreatedworld,buttheTrinityalsodecidedto
1. Godissimple,withoutcompositionofparts,suchas
givegracetohumanbeings. Thistakesplacethroughthe
bodyandsoul,ormatterandform.[109]
IncarnationoftheWordinthepersonofJesusChristand
2. God is perfect, lacking nothing. That is, God throughtheindwellingoftheHolySpiritwithinthosewho
is distinguished from other beings on account of have experienced salvation by God; according to Aidan
God’scompleteactuality.[110] ThomasdefinedGod Nichols.[118]
as the ‘Ipse Actus Essendi subsistens,’ subsisting act
ofbeing.[111]
3.6 Primacausa–firstcause
3. God is infinite. That is, God is not finite in the
ways that created beings are physically, intellectu- Thomas’sfiveproofsfortheexistenceofGodtakesome
ally, andemotionallylimited. Thisinfinityistobe of Aristotle’s assertions concerning principles of being.
distinguished from infinity of size and infinity of ForGodasprimacausa(firstcause)comesfromAristo-
number.[112] tle’sconceptoftheunmovedmoverandassertsthatGod
istheultimatecauseofallthings.[119]
4. Godisimmutable,incapableofchangeonthelevels
ofGod’sessenceandcharacter.[113]
3.7 NatureofJesusChrist
5. Godisone,withoutdiversificationwithinGod’sself.
The unity of God is such that God’s essence is the In the Summa Theologica Thomas begins his discussion
same as God’s existence. In Thomas’s words, “in ofJesusChristbyrecountingthebiblicalstoryofAdam
itselftheproposition'Godexists’isnecessarilytrue, andEveandbydescribingthenegativeeffectsoforiginal
forinitsubjectandpredicatearethesame.”[114] sin. The purpose of Christ’s Incarnation was to restore
human nature by removing “the contamination of sin”,
FollowingSt. AugustineofHippo,Thomasdefinessinas which humans cannot do by themselves. “Divine Wis-
“aword,deed,ordesire,contrarytotheeternallaw.”[115] dom judged it fitting that God should become man, so