The Science of Rare Earth Elements: Concepts and Applications

307 Pages·2022·19.54 MB·English

by  Frank R. Spellman

The Science of Rare
Earth Elements
This book examines rare earth elements ( REEs), materials, and metals that are
critical to modern life. These serve as crucial ingredients in the latest technologies
including electronics, electric motors, magnets, batteries, generators, energy stor-
age systems ( supercapacitors/ pseudocapacitors), specialty alloys, and other emerging
applications. REEs are used in various sectors including health care, transportation,
power generation, petroleum refining, and consumer electronics. The Science of
Rare Earth Elements: Concepts and Applications defines these elements, their his-
tories, properties, and current and potential future applications across a wide range
of industries across the world. It also discusses the environmental benefits, such as
components in electric vehicles, wind turbines, solar applications, and energy storage
systems. Conversely, the book also examines the liabilities of mining these REEs.

The Science of Rare Earth
Elements
Concepts and Applications
Frank R. Spellman
First edition published 2023
by CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Spellman, Frank R., author.
Title: The science of rare earth elements : concepts and applications / Frank R. Spellman.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2023. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022034102 (print) | LCCN 2022034103 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032396668
(hardback) | ISBN 9781032396682 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003350811 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Rare earths. | Rare earth metals.
Classification: LCC TA418.9.R37 S64 2023 (print) | LCC TA418.9.R37 (ebook) |
DDC 661.041—dc23/eng/20221011
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022034102
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022034103
ISBN: 9 78-1 -0 32-3 9666-8 (h bk)
ISBN: 9 78-1 -0 32-3 9668-2 (p bk)
ISBN: 9 78-1 -0 03-3 5081-1 (e bk)
DOI: 10.1201/9 781003350811
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Contents
Preface......................................................................................................................vii
Conversion Factors and SI Units ...............................................................................xi
About the Author .................................................................................................xxvii
PART I The Foundation
Chapter 1 The Vitamins of Modern Industry .......................................................3
Chapter 2 Basic Chemistry Review ....................................................................19
Chapter 3 Rare Earth Elements ..........................................................................43
Chapter 4 Information Please! ............................................................................47
Chapter 5 The 17 .................................................................................................65
Chapter 6 Rare in the United States? ................................................................123
Chapter 7 U.S. Phosphorite Deposits ................................................................149
Chapter 8 Placer Rare Earth Elements Deposits ..............................................153
PART II Environmental Aspects
Chapter 9 Life-Cycle of REE Mines .................................................................165
Chapter 10 Excess and Unused Materials ...........................................................187
Chapter 11 REE Processing ................................................................................209
v
vi Contents
Chapter 12 Rare Earth Element Recovery and Recycling ..................................223
Chapter 13 REE: Human Health and Environmental Risks ...............................241
Index ......................................................................................................................265
Preface
The Science of Rare Earth Elements: For Renewable Energy Applications is the sev-
enth volume in the acclaimed series that includes The Science of Water, The Science
of Air, The Science of Environmental Pollution, The Science of Renewable Energy,
and The Science of Waste ( in production) all of which bring this highly success-
ful series fully into the t wenty-first century. The Science of Rare Earth Elements:
Concepts and Applications continues the series mantra based on good science and
not feel-good science. It also continues to be presented in the author’s trademark
conversational style.
This book is about REEs, materials, and metals. REEs are critical to our modern
way of life, although few people know or understand this. The truth be told this lack
of knowledge or understanding of REEs is surprising because they are critical ingre-
dients in todays’ mix of technologies including electronics, electric motors, mag-
nets, batteries, generators, energy storage systems ( supercapacitors/ pseudocapacitor
s), emerging applications, and specialty alloys. REEs are used in various sectors of
the US economy including health care, transportation, power generation, petroleum
refining, and consumer electronics. This book focuses on answering the following
questions: What are REEs? What is the history of REEs and their use? For what are
REEs used? What are the properties of REEs? What are the environmental liabili-
ties of mining REEs? And also, what does the future hold for the usage of REEs?
Moreover, this book also asks the same basic and pertinent questions related to the
topic of discussion: Why should we care about REEs?
This last question and the answer provided in the text is or should be of particular
concern for those who are advocates for the use of renewable energy sources. Rare
earth materials are extensively used in wind turbine operations to produce electrical
power, in some solar applications for electrical power, and in energy storage systems.
REEs are also used in electric vehicles, thereby decreasing the need to use fossil
fuels for operation.
Concern for the environment and for the impact of environmental pollution has
brought about the trend ( and the need) to shift from the use and reliance on hydro-
carbons to energy-power sources that are pollution neutral or near pollution neutral
and renewable. We are beginning to realize that we are responsible for much of the
environmental degradation of the past and p resent—all of which is readily apparent
today. Moreover, the impact of 200 years of industrialization and surging popula-
tion growth has far exceeded the future supply of hydrocarbon power sources. So,
the implementation of renewable energy sources is surging, and along with it there
is a corresponding surge in the utilization of rare earth materials for use in energy
production.
Why a text on the science of REEs? Simply put, studying REEs, materials, metals,
products, and so forth without including the inherent science connection is analogous
to attempting to reach an unknown, unfamiliar location without being able to read a
map, paper, or digital device.
vii
viii Preface
Many of us have come to realize that a price is paid ( sometimes a high price) for
what is called “ the good life.” Our consumption and use of the world’s resources
make all of us at least partially responsible for pushing the need to prevent the pol-
lution of our environment due to our use of conventional energy sources such as oil
and coal. Pollution and its ramifications are one of the inevitable products of the
good life we all strive to attain, but obviously pollution is not something caused by
any single individual, nor can one individual totally prevent or correct the situation.
The common refrain we hear today is to reduce pollution and its harmful effects
everyone must band together as an informed, knowledgeable group and pressure
the elected decision makers to manage the problem now and in the future. At this
moment in time, there is an on-going push to substitute fossil fuels with renewable
energy sources—this is where the shift to renewable energy sources comes into play
and where the need to use REEs in wind turbines, solar technology, and energy stor-
age applications is vital.
Throughout this text, common-sense approaches and practical examples have
been presented. Again, because this is a science text, I have adhered to scientific
principles, models, and observations, but you need not be a scientist to understand
the principles and concepts presented. What is needed is an open mind, a love for the
challenge of wading through all the information, an ability to decipher problems, and
the patience to answer the questions relevant to each topic presented. The text follows
a pattern that is nontraditional; that is, the paradigm used here is based on r eal-world
experience, not on theoretical gobbledygook. Real-life situations are woven through-
out the fabric of this text and presented in straightforward, plain English to give
the facts, knowledge, and information to enable understanding and needed to make
informed decisions.
Environmental issues are attracting ever-increasing attention at all levels. The
problems associated with these issues are compounded and made more difficult by
the sheer number of factors involved in managing any phase of any problem. Because
the issues affect so many areas of society, the dilemma makes us hunt for strategies
that solve the problems for all, while maintaining a safe environment without exces-
sive regulation and cost—Gordian knots that defy easy solutions.
The preceding statement goes to the heart of why this text is needed. Presently,
only a limited number of individuals have sufficient background in the science of
REEs and their concepts and applications in the world of industrial and practical
functions, purposes, and uses to make informed decisions on 21st-century product
production, usage, and associated environmental issues.
Finally, The Science of Rare Earth Elements is designed to reach a wide range
of practitioner and student backgrounds and also to provide a basic handbook or
reference for wind and solar energy technicians, and those in other industries such
as electric vehicle production and maintenance, those involved with the production
of high tech devices such as smartphones, digital cameras, computer hard drives,
light-emitting diodes ( LEDs), fluorescent lights, flat-screen televisions, computer
monitors, electronic displays, military applications, and trade secret operations
whereby knowledge is fundamental to producing the trade secret operation. The text
focuses on harnessing REEs to produce electrical power for transmission that is criti-
cal to preserving what we call the good life.
Preface ix
As in the past with the other editions in this series, this book is presented in
the author’s characteristic conversational style where the goal is to communicate
with the reader and the user—failure to communicate is never an option with this
w riter—never.
The bottom line: Critical to solving these real-world environmental problems is
for all of us to remember that old saying, we should take nothing but pictures, leave
nothing but footprints, kill nothing but time and sustain ourselves with the flow of
clean, safe, renewable energy.
Frank R. Spellman
Norfolk, VA