The Root Causes of Terrorism

155 Pages·2014·1.75 MB·English

The Root Causes of Terrorism: An Appraisal of the
Socio-Economic Determinants of Boko Haram
Terrorism in Nigeria

By

James Ojochenemi David

Dissertation submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
of Master of Arts (MA) in Politics, Philosophy and Economics at the

School of Social Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal

Supervised

by

Mr Hakeem Onapajo

Pietermaritzburg Campus, South Africa
November 2013
I
DECLARATION

I, David James Ojochenemi, hereby declare that this dissertation is my own original work and
that all sources have been accurately reported and acknowledged, and that this document has
not previously in its entirety or in part been submitted at any university in order to obtain
academic qualification

------------------------------------- -------------------------------
David James Ojochenemi Date

I
DECLARATION BY SUPERVISOR

I hereby declare that I acted as supervisor for this MA student:
Student’s Full Name: James Ojochenemi David
Student Number: 212553195
Title of Thesis: The Root Causes Of Terrorism: An Appraisal of the Socio-Economic
Determinates of Boko Haram Terrorism in Nigeria

………………………………… ………………………………
Mr Hakeem Onapajo Date

II
DEDICATION

To the loving Memory of my most caring Mother, Mrs Theresa Onuh,
whose sudden transition to Glory came at the tip of this study.
Your unquantifiable contribution and support towards the success of
this study and my entire academic journey is forever appreciated.
Remain blessed in God’s most rewarding bosom!!!

III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My earnest gratitude goes firstly to God, who is the source and summit of all knowledge, for
His unending love and care over me during this study.
I remain highly indebted to my supervisor Mr Hakeem Onapajo, whose substantive
contribution, patience, guidance and directions saw this study to its end. May God replenish
you for the many sacrifices made towards the success of this study.
I am deeply grateful to Dominic Okoliko and Augustine Shaibu for the proofreading and
editing of this work. May God reward you abundantly according to His riches in Glory.
I also wish to express my deep sense of appreciation to all my friends and family –
particularly, Rose Ebube, Daniel David, Monica Apeh, Rita Shaibu, Dr Khondlo Mtshali,
Dornu Kpaghi, Timothy Obaje, Ambrose Okem, Andrew Okem, Benjamin Maiangwa, Tony
Oyowe, Nneka Afoma, Kevin Igwe, Albano Troco, Regis Wilson, Charles Nneme, Gabriel
Darong, Vimbayinashe Chibambo – for your emotional, intellectual as well as material
contribution. May you be highly rewarded!

IV
ABSTRACT
Since 2009 the Nigerian state has been under the throes of the deadly terrorist activities of the
Islamic sect formally known as Jama’atuAhlis Sunna Lidda’awati Wal-Jihad (Association for
propagating the Prophet’s Teachings and Jihad). The sect, popularly dubbed Boko Haram,
meaning Western civilization/education is forbidden, claims to be on a mission to Islamize
the Nigerian State. Prima facie Boko Haram’s motivations appear to be religious; however,
considering factors such as the dismal socio-economic conditions that prevail in the northern
region, the epicentre of the sect, a religious explanation alone is reductive. Accordingly,
using the root cause theoretical framework and a qualitative method of data analysis, this
study investigates the socio-economic determinants of the emergence and persistence of
Boko Haram terrorism. The alarming socio-economic inequality and deprivation manifested
in pervasive poverty across the nation, but particularly in the northern region is accentuated
as one of the main factors that predispose the teeming disenchanted and jobless populace,
particularly the youths in the region to take arms against the state. Fundamentally, Boko
Harm terrorism pivots on the growing anti-state tendency in Nigeria, a state arguably losing
its legitimacy as a result of her inability and failure to meet the political, social and economic
needs of its populace. Among the reasons for this failure include pervasive corruption and
maladministration largely entrenched by the monocultural nature of the oil centric national
economy.
Based on the interdisciplinary nature of this degree program – Politics, Philosophy and
Economics – this study philosophically engages the concept of terrorism; situates the
debates on the socio-economic determinants of terrorism within the particular context of the
Nigerian political economy; contributes to the body of literature that seeks to provide an
understanding of the Boko Haram phenomenon from the perspective of its socio-economic
determinants; and suggests some relevant policies for addressing this particular crisis as well
as those of other like-minded groups in the country. Given that the state’s militarised
approach to the crisis has hardly been able to efficiently stall the sect’s terrorist activities, this
study accents the need for a long term solution characterised by addressing the root causes,
especially through the socio-economic development of the mostly affected northern region.

V
Contents
DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................................... I
DECLARATION BY SUPERVISOR ................................................................................................... II
DEDICATION ...................................................................................................................................... III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................... V
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................................. IIX
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................... X
GLOSSARY ......................................................................................................................................... XI
CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................................................................................... 1
BACKGROUND TO STUDY ................................................................................................................ 1
1. General Introduction: Setting the Scene............................................................................. 1
1.1 Statement of Problem ....................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Research Hypothesis ........................................................................................................ 4
1.3 Research Objectives ......................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................... 5
1.5.1 Root Cause (RC) .......................................................................................................... 12
1.6 Research Methodology ................................................................................................... 20
1.7 Significance of Study ..................................................................................................... 21
1.8 Structure of the Study .................................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................................. 23
LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................................... 23
2. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 23
2.1 The Definition Problem: The Bermuda Triangle of Terrorism ...................................... 23
2.2 Perspectives on Terrorism: A Historical Trajectory ...................................................... 28
2.3 Justification of Terrorism ............................................................................................... 32
2.3.1 Between Socio-economic factors and terrorism ........................................................ 36
2.4 Boko Haram Terrorism in Nigeria ................................................................................. 38
CHAPTER THREE .............................................................................................................................. 40
POLITICAL ECONOMY OF NIGERIA AND TERRORISM ............................................................ 40
VI
3 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 40
3.1 Pre-Oil Economy in Nigeria ........................................................................................... 41
3.2 The Nigerian Oil-Centric Economy and Consequences ................................................ 42
3.3. Nigeria’s Economic Crises from the 1970s .................................................................. 47
3.3.1. The [Mis]management of the Crises: From Shagari to Obasanjo ............................. 49
3.4 Corruption in Nigeria ..................................................................................................... 58
on Nigeria, 1996-2012.......................................................................................................... 60
3.4.1 Cost of Corruption ...................................................................................................... 61
3.5. Poverty in Nigeria ......................................................................................................... 65
3.6 Terrorism in Nigeria ....................................................................................................... 73
3.7 Summary and conclusion ............................................................................................... 74
CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................................. 75
UNDERSTANDING BOKO HARAM ................................................................................................ 75
4. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 75
4.1 Understanding “Boko Haram” ....................................................................................... 75
4.2 Evolution and Identity .................................................................................................... 75
4.3 Ideological Background, Mission and Location ............................................................ 77
4.4 Leadership ...................................................................................................................... 80
4.5 Membership .................................................................................................................... 81
4.6 Targets and Tactics......................................................................................................... 83
4.7 Indicators of International Link and Sponsorship .......................................................... 86
4.8 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 88
CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................................. 90
ROOT CAUSES OF BOKO HARAM TERRORISM: A SOCIO-ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE ...... 90
5. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 90
5.1 Unemployment and Bourgeoning Population in Northern Nigeria ............................... 90
5.2 Pervasive Poverty ........................................................................................................... 93
5.3 Economic development and income inequality ........................................................ 99
5.4 Low Educational Profile in the Northern Region......................................................... 104
VII
5.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 108
CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................................... 110
RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION ................................................................................ 110
6. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 110
6.1 A Review of Government's Response to Boko Haram ................................................ 111
6.2 The Security and Development Nexus ......................................................................... 112
6.3 Addressing the Socio-Economic Root Causes ............................................................. 114
6.3.1 Creating Employment Opportunities ....................................................................... 115
6.3.2 Effective Poverty Alleviation Program and Social Welfare Improvement .............. 115
6.3.3 Improving the Education Profile in the Northern Region ........................................ 116
6.3.4 Good Governance and Leadership ........................................................................... 117
6.4. Other General Recommendations ............................................................................... 118
6.4.1 Effective Border Control and International Cooperation ......................................... 118
6.4.2 Breaking the Sponsorship Link ................................................................................ 119
6.4.3 Regulating teaching in religious gatherings. ............................................................ 119
GENERAL CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................... 119
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................... 122

VIII
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Nigeria’s ranking in the failed State Index (2007-2013) ...................................... 8
Table 1.2: Underlying Causes of Ethnic and Internal Conflicts .......................................... 19
Table 3.1: Trend in Real Rural Household Income in Nigeria (1984-1989) ....................... 55
Table 3.2: Nigeria Corruption Perception Index/Ranking (1996-2012). ............................. 60
Table 3.3: Progress on the education goal of the MDGs in Nigeria as at 2009 ................... 71
Table 4.1: Some Reported Suicide Bombings mounted by the Boko Haram (June 2011-
Nov 2012) ............................................................................................................................. 84

IX