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The Quality Improvement Handbook, Second Edition PDF

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wes96904_fm.qxd 4/20/06 9:20 AM Page i The Quality Improvement Handbook Second Edition wes96904_fm.qxd 4/20/06 9:20 AM Page ii Also available from ASQ Quality Press: The Quality Toolbox, Second Edition Nancy R. Tague Root Cause Analysis: Simplified Tools and Techniques, Second Edition Bjørn Andersen and Tom Fagerhaug The Certified Manager of Quality/Organizational Excellence Handbook: Third Edition Russell T. Westcott, editor Quality Essentials: AReference Guide from Ato Z Jack B. ReVelle The Quality Improvement Glossary Donald L. Siebels The Path to Profitable Measures: 10 Steps to Feedback That Fuels Performance Mark W. Morgan Lean Kaizen: ASimplified Approach to Process Improvements George Alukal and Anthony Manos Simplified Project Management for the Quality Professional: Managing Small & Medium-Size Projects Russell T. Westcott Leadership for Results: Removing Barriers to Success for People, Projects, and Processes Tom Barker Everyday Excellence: Creating a Better Workplace through Attitude, Action, and Appreciation Clive Shearer Making Change Work: Practical Tools for Overcoming Human Resistance to Change Brien Palmer The Executive Guide to Improvement and Change G. Dennis Beecroft, Grace L. Duffy, and John W. Moran To request a complimentary catalog of ASQ Quality Press publications, call 800-248-1946, or visit our Web site at http://qualitypress.asq.org. wes96904_fm.qxd 4/20/06 9:20 AM Page iii The Quality Improvement Handbook Second Edition John E. Bauer, Grace L. Duffy, and Russell T. Westcott, Editors Quality Management Division American Society for Quality ASQ Quality Press Milwaukee, Wisconsin wes96904_fm.qxd 4/20/06 9:20 AM Page iv American Society for Quality, Quality Press, Milwaukee 53203 © 2006 by ASQ All rights reserved. Published 2006 Printed in the United States of America 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The quality improvement handbook / John E. Bauer, Grace L. Duffy, and Russell T. Westcott, editors.—2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-87389-690-0 1. Quality control—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Quality assurance— Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Bauer, John E. II. Duffy, Grace L. III. Westcott, Russ, 1927- TS156.Q3Q355 2006 658.5′62—dc22 2006010039 ISBN-13: 978-0-87389-690-0 ISBN-10: 0-87389-690-4 No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Publisher: William A. Tony Acquisitions Editor: Annemieke Hytinen Project Editor: Paul O’Mara Production Administrator: Randall Benson ASQ Mission: The American Society for Quality advances individual, organization, and community excellence worldwide through learning, quality improvement, and knowledge exchange. Attention Bookstores, Wholesalers, Schools, and Corporations: ASQ Quality Press books, videotapes, audiotapes, and software are available at quantity discounts with bulk purchases for business, educational, or instructional use. For information, please contact ASQ Quality Press at 800-248-1946, or write to ASQ Quality Press, P.O. Box 3005, Milwaukee, WI 53201-3005. To place orders or to request a free copy of the ASQ Quality Press Publications Catalog, including ASQ membership information, call 800-248-1946. Visit our Web site at www.asq.org or http://qualitypress.asq.org. Printed in the United States of America Printed on acid-free paper wes96904_fm.qxd 4/20/06 9:20 AM Page v Contents List of Figures and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Notes to the Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv Part I Quality Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Chapter 1 A. Terms, Concepts, and Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1. Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2. Quality Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3. The Importance of Employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 4. Systems and Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 5. Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Chapter 2 B. Benefits of Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 C. Quality Philosophies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 1. Deming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2. Juran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 3. Crosby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Part II Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Chapter 3 A. Understanding Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 1. Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2. Characteristics and Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3. Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Chapter 4 B. Roles and Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Chapter 5 C. Team Formation and Group Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 1. Initiating Teams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 2. Selecting Team Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3. Team Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 4. Team Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 5. Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Part III Continuous Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Chapter 6 A. Incremental and Breakthrough Improvement . . . . . . . . . . 72 Chapter 7 B. Improvement Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 v wes96904_fm.qxd 4/20/06 9:20 AM Page vi vi Contents Chapter 8 C. Problem-Solving Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Chapter 9 D. Improvement Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Chapter 10 E. Customer–Supplier Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 1. Internal and External Customers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 2. Customer Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 3. Internal and External Suppliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 4. Supplier Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Appendix A Body of Knowledge ASQ: Certified Quality Improvement Associate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Appendix B ASQ Code of Ethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Appendix C Quality Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Appendix D Additional Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 wes96904_fm.qxd 4/20/06 9:20 AM Page vii List of Figures and Tables Part I Figure 1.1 SIPOC diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Figure 2.1 Deming’s “chain reaction” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Table 2.1 Comparisons of Baldrige Award criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Part II Table 4.1 (Team) Roles, responsibilities, and performance attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Figure 4.1 Team meeting process self-assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Part III Figure 7.1 Basic process improvement model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Figure 7.2 Plan—Do—Check/Study—Act cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Table 7.1 Setting objectives the S.M.A.R.T. W.A.Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Figure 8.1 Problem-solving model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Figure 8.2a,b Action plan (form) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Table 8.1 Distinguishing between performance and skill/knowledge issues . . . . . . . 107 Figure 9.1 Affinity diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Figure 9.2 Arrow diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Figure 9.3 Cause-and-effect diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Figure 9.4 Check sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Figure 9.5 Control chart (process in control) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Figure 9.6 Morning coffee flowchart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Figure 9.7 Basic flowchart symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Figure 9.8 Force-field analysis diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Figure 9.9 Gantt chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Figure 9.10 Histogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Figure 9.11 Pareto chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Figure 9.12 Process decision program chart (PDPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Figure 9.13 Quality function deployment (QFD) matrix “house of quality” . . . . . . . . . . 139 Figure 9.14 Interrelationship digraph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Figure 9.15 Resource allocation matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Figure 9.16 Run chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Figure 9.17 Scatter diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Figure 9.18 Tree diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Figure 10.1 Voice of the customer deployed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Table 10.1 Levels of customer satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Figure 10.2 The Kano model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 vviiii wes96904_fm.qxd 4/20/06 9:20 AM Page ix Preface The Quality Management Division (QMD) of the American Society for Qual- ity (ASQ) continues to see organizational and process improvement being in- tegrated into all areas of organization. This has resulted in a decrease in many of the traditional quality functions such as quality assurance, quality control, and quality audits. However, this move to integrate quality has led to an ever- increasing requirement for everyone in the organization to understand the basic principles of process control and process improvement. ASQ introduced the Certified Quality Improvement Associate(CQIA) certification in 2000. This body of knowledge (BoK) was initially designed to address the non- traditional quality professional. It encompassed the basics of quality, teamwork, and continuous improvement. Over the past five years the CQIAhas been strongly supported by the business community. Feedback from our customers resulted in a revision of the BoK, which in turn necessitated the second edition of this handbook. The Voice of the Customer surveys for the BoK update identified three key ar- eas for revision: value, problem solving, and decision making. This second edition addresses each of these key areas separately. It provides new material on identify- ing the value of teams, the specific process approaches for problem solving, and the different approaches for entering either problem-solving or decision-making pathways. Asample exam is included once again with new items for problem solv- ing, value, and decision making. The QMD sees the achievement of Certified Quality Improvement Associateas an important entry-level qualification for a career path toward the leadership and management of effective business systems. This path might ultimately culminate in certification as a Certified Manager of Quality/Organizational Excellence. Knowl- edge of quality basics, teamwork, and continuous improvement are the first steps in any successful career. Once again, our division is very pleased to have three of our very knowledge- able members to act as the editors for this second edition: • John E. Bauer • Grace L. Duffy • Russell T. Westcott This handbook will be a valuable resource not only for those seeking certification but also for individuals wishing to increase their knowledge of basic quality infor- mation and tools. G. Dennis Beecroft Chair Quality Management Division American Society for Quality ix wes96904_fm.qxd 4/20/06 9:20 AM Page xi Notes to the Reader A BRIEF HISTORY OF QUALITY1 Although the history of quality goes back to ancient times, this short review starts with the current quality movement that had its beginning in the 1920s. The quality profession as we know it today began when Walter Shewhart of Bell Laboratories developed a system, known as statistical process control, for measuring variance in production systems. Statistical process control is still used to help monitor consis- tency and diagnose problems in work processes. Shewhart also created the Plan— Do—Check—Act (PDCA) cycle, which applies a systematic approach to improving work processes. When the PDCAcycle is applied consistently, it can re- sult in continuous process improvement. During World War II, the U.S. War Department hired Dr. W. Edwards Deming, a physicist and U.S. Census Bureau researcher, to teach statistical process control to the defense industry. Quality control and statistical methods were considered to be critical factors in a successful war effort. Unfortunately, most of the companies in the United States stopped using these statistical tools after the war. The U.S. occupation forces in Japan invited Deming to help Japan with its post- war census. He was also invited to present lectures to business leaders on statisti- cal process control and quality. The Japanese acceptance and use of Dr. Deming’s techniques had a profound positive effect on the economy of Japan. Two other American experts, Dr. Joseph Juran and Armand Feigenbaum, also worked with the Japanese. Both Deming and Juran, a former investigator at the Hawthorne Works experiments, drew on Shewhart’s work and recognized that system problems could be addressed through three fundamental managerial processes—planning, control, and improvement—and that satisfying the cus- tomer’s needs was important. Feigenbaum stressed the need to involve all depart- ments of a company in the pursuit of quality, something he called total quality control.The Japanese expanded Juran’s customer concept to include internal cus- tomers, those people within the organization who depend on the output of other workers. Kaoru Ishikawa, a Japanese engineer and manager, enlarged Feigenbaum’s ideas to include all employees, not just department managers, in the total-quality- control concept. Ishikawa also helped to create quality circles,small teams of man- agers, supervisors, and workers trained in statistical process control, the PDCA cycle, and group problem solving. Applying these techniques created a flow of new ideas for improvement from everyone in the organization and continuous xxii wes96904_fm.qxd 4/20/06 9:20 AM Page xii xii Notes to the Reader small improvements that led to better performance. The quality circles were the original model for our current process improvement teams. By the 1970s, most large Japanese companies had adopted what Ishikawa called companywide quality control(CWQC), resulting in a perception that Japan produced world-class quality products. The Japanese success prompted American organizations to embrace the teach- ings of Deming, Juran, Feigenbaum, and other quality “gurus” and to apply their successful quality management techniques in many types of business. Beginning in the mid 1980s, American organizations began to experience improved quality results and enhanced customer satisfaction. In 1987, the criteria for the first Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award were published. At the same time, ISO 9001, Quality Systems—Model for quality assurance in design, development, production, installation, and servicing was published. These documents have resulted in profound changes in the way the quality profession operates. By the end of 2004, 150-plus countries were using the ISO 9000 standards and more than 670,000 quality system certificates had been issued. Many industry- specific quality management system documents have evolved from ISO 9000. More than 2 million copies of the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award criteria have been distributed, and many state and local quality award programs have developed their own criteria based on the national award criteria. Although very few organizations actually apply for the national award, thousands use the criteria to evaluate and improve their quality management systems. Health-care and education versions of the award criteria have been published in the last few years, further expanding the applicability and value of the criteria. STRUCTURE OF THE BOOK The content of this book is structured to follow the BoK to be used in preparation for taking the Certified Quality Improvement Associate (CQIA) examination given by the American Society for Quality (ASQ). Though the content coincides with the sequence of the BoK, each chapter stands alone, and the chapters may be read in any order. Where appropriate, supplemental reading suggestions are provided. DIVERSITY The use of quality and continual improvement is no longer considered the sole property of manufacturing or the traditional engineering and production environ- ment. Most professionals entering the workforce today are required to analyze sit- uations, identify problems, and provide solutions for improved performance. Improving the organization is everyone’s job. Teamwork is critical, requiring the participation of members of all backgrounds, nationalities, educational levels, and career aspirations. An attempt has been made to balance the use of personal pronouns as well as introduce examples from a variety of organizations. The use of the term orga-

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