The Physical Universe

768 Pages·2019·56.852 MB·English

by  Konrad Krauskopf, Arthur Beiser

This International Student Edition is for use outside of the U.S.
Seventeenth Edition

THE
PHYSICAL
UNIVERSE
Konrad B. Krauskopf Arthur Beiser
e
ol
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0 00 000 0,000 00,000 000,000 0,000,000 00,000,000 000,000,000 0,000,000,000 1dadeka-102hhecto-103kkilo-106Mmega-109Ggiga-1012Ttera-1015Ppeta-1018Eexa-10 nts 8×3.00 10 m/s-19×1.60 10 C-1122×⋅6.67 10 N  m/kg29.81 m/s -34×⋅6.63 10 J  s922×⋅8.99 10 N  m/C-31×9.11 10 kg-27×1.675 10 kg-27×1.673 10 kg23×6.02 10 formula unit
0=0 11=0 12=0 13=0 14=0 15=0 16=0 1,7=0 18=0 19=0 1,10=0 1 onsta c e G g h K me mn mp N0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 C
Powers of Ten -10=10 0.000,000,000,1-9=10 0.000,000,001-8=10 0.000,000,01-7=10 0.000,000,1-6=10 0.000,001-5=10 0.000,01-4=10 0.000,1-3=10 0.001-2=10 0.01-1=10 0.10=10 1 Multipliers for SI Units -18aatto-10 -15ffemto-10 -12ppico-10 -9nnano-10 -6μmicro-10 -3mmilli-10 -2ccenti-10 -1ddeci-10 Physical and Chemical Speed of light in vacuum Charge on electron Gravitational constant Acceleration of gravity at earth’s surface Planck’s constant Coulomb constant Electron rest mass Neutron rest mass Proton rest mass Avogadro’s number
g
k
of 1
ht
g al
ei c
w k
e 23
94 in. hat th -× 10 Pa
Conversion Factors ===1 meter (m) 100 cm 39.4 in. 3.28 ft ==1 centimeter (cm) 10 millimeters (mm) 0.3 ==1 kilometer (km) 1000 m 0.621 mi ==1 foot (ft) 12 in. 0.305 m ==1 inch (in.) 0.0833 ft 2.54 cm ==1 mile (mi) 5280 ft 1.61 km-333===1 liter 1000 cm 10 m 1.056 quart-3==×1 day 86,400 s 2.74 10 year7=×=1 year 3.16 10 s 365 days ===1 m/s 3.28 ft/s 2.24 mi/h 3.60 km/h ===1 ft/s 0.305 m/s 0.682 mi/h 1.10 km/h ===1 mi/h 1.47 ft/s 0.447 m/s 1.61 km/h =1 kilogram (kg) 1000 grams (g) (Note: 1 kg corresponds to 2.21 lb in the sense tis 2.21 lb.)-27=×1 atomic mass unit (u) 1.66 10 kg-10=× 1.49 10 J= 931 MeV =1 newton (N) 0.225 lb =1 pound (lb) 4.45 N-4=×1 joule (J) 2.39 10 kcal 18=× 6.24 10 eV=1 kWh 3.6 MJ =1 kilocalorie 4.185 kJ--69==1 electron volt (eV) 10 MeV 10 GeV-19=× 1.60 10 J-19=×= 1.18 10 ft ⋅ lb 3.83 =1 watt (W) 1 J/s ==1 kilowatt (kW) 1000 W 1.34 hp =1 horsepower (hp) 746 W2=1 pascal (Pa) 1 N/m5=×1 atmosphere of pressure (atm) 1.013 10 2= 14.7 lb/in.5=1 bar 10 Pa 5=-°C (°F 32°)9 9=+°F °C 32°5 =+K °C 273

The
Physical Universe
Seventeenth
Edition
Konrad B. Krauskopf
Late Professor Emeritus of Geochemistry, Stanford University
Arthur Beiser
THE PHYSICAL UNIVERSE
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright ©2020 by McGraw-Hill
Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be repro-
duced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage
or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the
United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LWI 21 20 19
ISBN 978-1-260-56590-4
MHID 1-260-56590-4
Cover Image: ©Kris Grablec/Shutterstock
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Brief Contents
Preface xii
1
The Scientific Method 1
2
Motion 27
3
Energy 62
4
Energy and the Future 93
5
Matter and Heat 146
6
Electricity and Magnetism 186
7
Waves 224
8
The Nucleus 264
9
The Atom 301
10
The Periodic Law 330
11
Crystals, Ions, and Solutions 362
12
Chemical Reactions 393
13
Organic Chemistry 423
14
Atmosphere and Hydrosphere 462
15
The Rock Cycle 503
16
The Evolving Earth 545
17
The Solar System 591
18
The Stars 636
19
The Universe 668
Math Refresher A-1
The Elements A-10
Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions
and Odd-Numbered Exercises A-11
Index I-1
Contents
Preface xii 2.10 Mass and Weight 46
2.11 Third Law of Motion 47
1 The Scientific Method 1 VAiIrIIXISCprVhyVeIHIsVIIVIreItIIeSaIoSISmfSpSilSplpoSpisphpwhnphfphheheeaehtherehterreeePreserePererrepreuEeeafihrargxeareatrdhedtioo.lsooyosorfePofyfotfftrafMhVfitMmrJheeSsueen.uaaprMucmSTtriuusstohuerroeMnnrynZoFobidirleieac G2ra.1v2itaCtioirncu la4r 8Motion 49
How Scientists Study Nature 2 ofEarthHemispJheerreusalemHellTheeDarkWood 22..1134 NAertwiftiocnia’sl LSaawte lolift eGs rav5i2ty 51
1.1 The Scientific Method 3
Important Terms and Ideas 55
1.2 Why Science Is Successful 5
Important Formulas 56
The Solar System 6
Multiple Choice 56
1.3 A Survey of the Sky 6
Exercises 58
1.4 The Ptolemaic System 8
1.5 The Copernican System 10
3
1.6 Kepler’s Laws 11 Energy 62
1.7 Why Copernicus Was Right 14
Work 63
Universal Gravitation 15
3.1 The Meaning of Work 63
1.8 What Is Gravity? 15
3.2 Power 65
1.9 Why the Earth Is Round 17
Energy 67
1.10 The Tides 18
1.11 The Discovery of Neptune 19 3.3 Kinetic Energy 67
3.4 Potential Energy 69
How Many of What 21
3.5 Conservation of Energy 71
1.12 The SI System 21
3.6 Mechanical Advantage 73
Important Terms and Ideas 24
3.7 The Nature of Heat 75
Multiple Choice 24
Momentum 77
Exercises 26
3.8 Linear Momentum 77
3.9 Rockets 79
3.10 Angular Momentum 80
2
Motion 27 Relativity 82
3.11 Special Relativity 82
Describing Motion 28
3.12 Rest Energy 84
2.1 Speed 28
3.13 General Relativity 85
2.2 Vectors 31
Important Terms and Ideas 87
2.3 Acceleration 32
Important Formulas 87
2.4 Distance, Time, and Acceleration 34
Multiple Choice 88
Acceleration Due to Gravity 35 Exercises 89
2.5 Free Fall 36
2.6 Air Resistance 40 4
Energy and the Future 93
Force and Motion 40
2.7 First Law of Motion 41 The Energy Problem 95
2.8 Mass 42 4.1 Population and Prosperity 95
2.9 Second Law of Motion 44 4.2 Energy Supply and Consumption 96
vi
Contents vii
4.3 Climate Change 99 6
Electricity and
4.4 Carbon Dioxide and the Greenhouse Effect 102
Magnetism 186
Fossil Fuels 108
4.5 Liquid Fuels 108 Electric Charge 188
4.6 Natural Gas 111
6.1 Positive and Negative Charge 188
4.7 Coal 113
6.2 What Is Charge? 189
Alternative Sources 118 6.3 Coulomb’s Law 191
4.8 A Nuclear World? 119 6.4 Force on an Uncharged Object 192
4.9 Renewable Energy I 121 Electricity and Matter 193
4.10 Renewable Energy II 124
6.5 Matter in Bulk 193
4.11 Energy Storage 128
6.6 Conductors and Insulators 193
4.12 Biofuels 132
6.7 Superconductivity 195
Strategies For The Future 135
Electric Current 196
4.13 Conservation and Geoengineering 135
6.8 The Ampere 196
4.14 What Governments Must Do 138
6.9 Potential Difference 197
Important Terms and Ideas 142
6.10 Ohm’s Law 200
Multiple Choice 143
6.11 Electric Power 202
Exercises 144
Magnetism 204
6.12 Magnets 205
5 6.13 Magnetic Field 206
Matter and Heat 146
6.14 Oersted’s Experiment 207
Temperature and Heat 147 6.15 Electromagnets 209
5.1 Temperature 148 Using Magnetism 210
5.2 Heat 150 6.16 Magnetic Force on a Current 210
5.3 Metabolic Energy 152 6.17 Electric Motors 211
Fluids 154 6.18 Electromagnetic Induction 212
6.19 Transformers 215
5.4 Density 154
Important Terms and Ideas 218
5.5 Pressure 155
Important Formulas 218
5.6 Buoyancy 159
Multiple Choice 218
5.7 The Gas Laws 159
Exercises 221
KineticTheory of Matter 164
5.8 Kinetic Theory of Gases 164
7
5.9 Molecular Motion and Temperature 165 Waves 224
5.10 Heat Transfer 166
Wave Motion 225
Changes of State 167
7.1 Water Waves 226
5.11 Liquids and Solids 167
7.2 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves 227
5.12 Evaporation and Boiling 168
7.3 Describing Waves 228
5.13 Melting 170
7.4 Standing Waves 229
Energy Transformations 172
Sound Waves 231
5.14 Heat Engines 173
7.5 Sound 231
5.15 Thermodynamics 174
7.6 Doppler Effect 232
5.16 Fate of the Universe 177
7.7 Musical Sounds 234
5.17 Entropy 178
Important Terms and Ideas 179 Electromagnetic Waves 235
Important Formulas 179 7.8 Electromagnetic Waves 236
Multiple Choice 179 7.9 Types of EM Waves 237
Exercises 182 7.10 Light “Rays” 240
viii Contents
Wave Behavior 241 Matter Waves 308
7.11 Reflection 241 9.5 De Broglie Waves 308
7.12 Refraction 241 9.6 Waves of What? 309
7.13 Lenses 245 9.7 Uncertainty Principle 310
7.14 The Eye 248 The Hydrogen Atom 312
7.15 Color 250
9.8 Atomic Spectra 312
7.16 Interference 253
9.9 The Bohr Model 313
7.17 Diffraction 255
9.10 Electron Waves and
Important Terms and Ideas 258
Orbits 315
Important Formulas 258
9.11 The Laser 317
Multiple Choice 258
Quantum Theory of the Atom 320
Exercises 261
9.12 Quantum Mechanics 321
9.13 Quantum Numbers 322
8
9.14 Exclusion Principle 324
The Nucleus 264
Important Terms and Ideas 325
Atom and Nucleus 265 Important Formulas 325
8.1 Rutherford Model of the Atom 266 Multiple Choice 325
8.2 Nuclear Structure 267 Exercises 327
Radioactivity 269
8.3 Radioactive Decay 270
10
8.4 Half-Life 272 The Periodic Law 330
8.5 Radiation Hazards 273
Elements and Compounds 331
Nuclear Energy 276
10.1 Chemical Change 332
8.6 Units of Mass and Energy 276
10.2 Three Classes of Matter 332
8.7 Binding Energy 277
10.3 The Atomic Theory 335
8.8 Binding Energy per Nucleon 278
The Periodic Law 336
Fission and Fusion 279
10.4 Metals and Nonmetals 336
8.9 Nuclear Fission 280
10.5 Chemical Activity 337
8.10 How a Reactor Works 282
10.6 Families of Elements 338
8.11 Reactor Accidents 285
10.7 The Periodic Table 340
8.12 Plutonium 287
10.8 Groups and Periods 340
8.13 Nuclear Fusion 288
Atomic Structure 343
Elementary Particles 290
10.9 Shells and Subshells 344
8.14 Antiparticles 291
10.10 Explaining the Periodic
8.15 Fundamental Interactions 292
Table 345
8.16 Leptons and Hadrons 294
Chemical Bonds 348
Important Terms and Ideas 296
Multiple Choice 296 10.11 Types of Bonds 348
Exercises 298 10.12 Covalent Bonding 349
10.13 Ionic Bonding 351
10.14 Ionic Compounds 352
9
The Atom 301 10.15 Naming Compounds 354
10.16 Chemical Equations 355
Quantum Theory of Light 302 10.17 Types of Chemical
9.1 Photoelectric Effect 303 Reactions 357
9.2 Photons 303 Important Terms and Ideas 357
9.3 What Is Light? 306 Multiple Choice 358
9.4 X-Rays 307 Exercises 359
Contents ix
11 13
Crystals, Ions, and Organic Chemistry 423
Solutions 362
Carbon Compounds 424
Solids 363 13.1 Carbon Bonds 425
11.1 Ionic and Covalent Crystals 364 13.2 Alkanes 425
11.2 The Metallic Bond 366 13.3 Petroleum Products 426
11.3 Molecular Crystals 368 Structures of Organic Molecules 429
Solutions 372 13.4 Structural Formulas 429
11.4 Solubility 372 13.5 Isomers 430
11.5 Polar and Nonpolar Liquids 374 13.6 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons 432
11.6 Ions in Solution 376 13.7 Benzene 434
11.7 Evidence for Dissociation 378 Organic Compounds 435
11.8 Water 379 13.8 Hydrocarbon Groups 435
11.9 Water Pollution 382 13.9 Functional Groups 436
Acids and Bases 384 13.10 Polymers 439
11.10 Acids 384 Chemistry of Life 445
11.11 Strong and Weak Acids 385 13.11 Carbohydrates 445
11.12 Bases 386 13.12 Photosynthesis 447
11.13 The pH Scale 387 13.13 Lipids 448
11.14 Salts 387 13.14 Proteins 449
Important Terms and Ideas 389 13.15 Soil Nitrogen 451
Multiple Choice 389 13.16 Nucleic Acids 453
Exercises 391 13.17 Origin of Life 454
Important Terms and Ideas 456
Multiple Choice 457
12
Chemical Reactions 393 Exercises 459
Quantitative Chemistry 394
14
12.1 Phlogiston 395 Atmosphere and
12.2 Oxygen 397 Hydrosphere 462
12.3 The Mole 398
12.4 Formula Units 400 The Atmosphere 463
Chemical Energy 401 14.1 Regions of the Atmosphere 463
14.2 Atmospheric Moisture 466
12.5 Exothermic and Endothermic
14.3 Clouds 468
Reactions 403
12.6 Chemical Energy and Stability 404 Weather 472
12.7 Activation Energy 407 14.4 Atmospheric Energy 472
Reaction Rates 408 14.5 The Seasons 475
12.8 Temperature and Reaction Rates 409 14.6 Winds 476
12.9 Other Factors 409 14.7 General Circulation of the Atmosphere 477
12.10 Chemical Equilibrium 411 14.8 Middle-Latitude Weather Systems 480
12.11 Altering an Equilibrium 412 Climate 488
Oxidation and Reduction 413 14.9 Tropical Climates 488
12.12 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions 413 14.10 Middle- and High-Latitude Climates 488
12.13 Electrochemical Cells 415 14.11 Climate Change 489
Important Terms and Ideas 418 The Hydrosphere 492
Multiple Choice 418 14.12 Ocean Basins 492
Exercises 420 14.13 Ocean Currents 495