The Oceans: Key Issues in Marine Affairs

336 Pages·2004·7.01 MB·English

by  Hance D. Smith (auth.)

The Oceans: Key Issues in Marine Affairs
The GeoJournal Library
Volume78
Managing Editor: Max Barlow, Concordia University,
Montreal, Canada
Founding Series Editor:
Wolf Tietze, Helmstedt, Germany
Editorial Board: Paul Claval, France
Yehuda Gradus, Israel
Risto Laulajainen, Sweden
Sam Ock Park, South Korea
Herman van der Wusten, The Netherlands
The fit/es published in this series are listed at the end of this vo/urne.
The Oceans: Key Issues
in Marine Affairs
edited by
HANGE D. SMITH
University 01 Cardiff.
UK.
Springer-Science+Business Media, B. V.
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN 978-90-481-6716-6 ISBN 978-1-4020-2780-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-2780-2
Funded by European Union (ERBIC 18CT 970152)
All Rights Reserved
© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2004
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers 2004
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1s t edition 2004
No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise,
without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied
specifically for the purpose of being ente red and executed on a computer system, for exclusive
use by the purchaser of the work.
CONTENTS v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... xiii
AFFILIATIONS ............................................................................................................. xv
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1
HANCE D. SMITH .......................................................................................................... 1
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1
2. The global setting .................................................................................................... 1
3. The uses ofthe sea ................................................................................................... 2
4. Regional geography ................................................................................................. 3
CHAPTER 1. THE GEOGRAPHY OF THE SEA ......................................................... 5
HANCE D. SMITH .......................................................................................................... 5
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................. 5
2. Marine Geography ................................................................................................... 5
2.1. EVOLUTION AND STRUCTURE ................................................................. 5
2.2. PARADIGMS .................................................................................................. 6
2.3. SEA, LAND AND THE HUMAN EFFORT ................................................... 8
3. From Traditional to Urban Industrial to Post Industrial .......................................... 8
3.1. THE TRADITIONAL SOCIETY ..................................................................... 8
3.2. THE URBAN INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY ....................................................... 11
3.3. THE NATURE OF THE MILLENNIUM ...................................................... 14
4. Marine Geography, Ocean and Coasta1 Management: Setting a Course ............... 16
5. Conclusion: A Research and Teaching Agenda .................................................... 17
References .................................................................................................................. 18
CHAPTER 2. THE LAW OF THE SEA AT THE MILLENNIUM: ............................ 25
E.D. BROWN ................................................................................................................. 25
1. UNCLOS at the Millennium ................................................................................. 25
1.1. THE STATUS OF UNCLOS AT THE MILLENNIUM ................................ 26
1.2. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF UNCLOS INSTITUTIONS ........................... 29
1.2.1. Seabed Institutions ................................................................................... 29
1.2.2. Commission on the Limits ofthe Continental Shelf. ............................... 31
1.2.3. Meetings ofStates Parties ........................................................................ 33
1.2.4. United Nations Open-ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans
and the Law of the Sea ....................................................................................... 34
1.2.5. Dispute Settlement Institutions ................................................................ 35
2. Settlement ofDisputes under UNCLOS ................................................................ 38
2.1. THE DISPUTE SETTLEMENT SCHEME IN OUTLINE ............................ 38
2.1.1. General Provisions ................................................................................... 38
2.1.2. Compu1sory Procedures Entai1ing Binding Decisions ............................. 39
2.1.3. Limitations and Exceptions to App1icability ofSection 2 ....................... 39
2.1.4. Sea-bed Mining Disputes ......................................................................... 42
2.2. AN OVERCOMPLEX SCHEME? ................................................................ 43
2.2.1. The Limited Scope of Compu1sory Procedures Entai1ing Binding
Decisions ............................................................................................................ 43
VI CONTENTS
2.2.2. Will the System Achieve the Definitive Settlement ofDisputes and the
Development of a Uniform and Consistent Jurisprudence? .............................. .43
2.3. A TENTATIVE EVALUATION .................................................................. .46
2.3.1. Declarations on Choice of Dispute Settlement Mechanisms .................. .46
2.3.2. State Practice in Resolving Disputes in UNCLOS Era ............................ 49
2.3.3. Tentative Conclusions ............................................................................. 61
CHAPTER 3. MARITIME BOUNDARIES ................................................................. 63
G.H. BLAKE .................................................................................................................. 63
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................... 63
2. The 1982 UN Convention on the Law ofthe Sea (UNCLOS) ............................. 64
2.1. BREADTH OF THE TERRITORIAL SEA ................................................... 64
2.2. STRAITS USED FOR NAVIGATION .......................................................... 65
2.3. THE EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE (EEZ) ............................................ 65
2.4. DEFINITION OF THE CONTINENTAL SHELF (CS) ................................ 66
2.5. THE INTERNATIONAL SEABED ............................................................... 67
3. Boundary Delimitation .......................................................................................... 68
3.1. DELIMITATION PRINCIPLES .................................................................... 68
3.2. COMMON MARITIME ZONES ................................................................... 69
4. Unfmished Business .............................................................................................. 69
4.1. UNRESOLVED DISPUTES .......................................................................... 70
4.2. EXCESSIVE CLAIMS .................................................................................. 73
4.3. LIMITS OF THE CONTINENTAL SHELF BEYOND 200 NM .................. 73
5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 74
References .................................................................................................................. 76
CHAPTER 4. GEOGRAPHY AND GEO-STRA TEGY OF THE OCEANS ............... 77
A. VIGARIE ................................................................................................................... 77
1. Theoretical Foundations ofthe Geo-Strategy ofthe Oceans ................................. 78
1.1. ALL MODERN COUNTRIES NEED EXTERNAL RELATIONS .............. 78
1.2. THIS LEADS TO A GEO-POLICY TO SATISFYNEEDS ......................... 79
2. General Methodological Approach ofResearch into the Geo-Strategy ofthe
Oceans ........................................................................................................................ 81
2.1. NATIONAL MARITIMISA TION F AC TORS AT THE BEGINNING OF
THE 21ST CENTURY ............................................................................................ 81
2.2. THE MEANS: THE CAPA CITY FOR INTERVENTION IN THE OCEANIC
SPHERE ................................................................................................................. 85
3. Research Perspectives and Directions for the Future ............................................ 87
3.1. THE DIVERSITY OF THEMATIC AREAS .................................................. 87
3.2. A DYNAMIC VISION OF THE WORLD OCEAN ...................................... 88
4. Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 88
References and Notes ................................................................................................. 89
CHAPTER 5. MARITIME TRANSPORT ................................................................... 91
J. MARCADON ............................................................................................................. 91
1. The Recent Evolution of the W orld Fleet and the Revolution in Sea Transport ... 91
1.1. RECENT EVOLUTION ACCORDING TO FLAG ....................................... 91
1.2. SHIP TECHNOLOGY, SIZE AND SPECIALISATION ............................... 94
CONTENTS VB
1.2.1. The supremaey ofthe diesel engine and the arrivaloffast ships .............. 94
1.2.2. Size and Speeialisation in the last 40 Years ............................................. 95
1.2.3. Company Mergers ................................................................................... 95
2. Fleet Developments and Organisation ................................................................... 97
2.1. BULK FLEETS AND INCREASED SAFETY A W ARENESS ..................... 97
2.1.1. Ship Owners and Operators ...................................................................... 97
2.1.2. Fleet Diversity in Liquid Bulk .................................................................. 98
2.1.3. Environment and Safety Measures ........................................................... 99
2.2. FLEETS ON REGULAR ROUTES .............................................................. 100
2.2.1. The Conventional Freight Seetor. .......................................................... 100
2.2.2. The Container Seetor ............................................................................. 101
2.3. MARITIME PASSENGER TRANSPORT ................................................... 10 2
3. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 103
CHAPTER 6. OFFS HORE OlL AND GAS AT THE MILLENNIUM ...................... 105
H. J. PICKERING ........................................................................................................ 10 5
1. Introduetion ......................................................................................................... 105
2. Market and Priee Trends ..................................................................................... 10 5
3. Contribution ofOffshore Produetion ................................................................... 110
4. Offshore Exploration and Development .............................................................. 113
5. Reserves .............................................................................................................. 119
6. Opportunities for the Millennium ........................................................................ 125
6.1. TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS .................................................... 126
6.2. STATE OWNERSHIP TO PRIVATE INVESTMENT ............................... 127
6.3. CORPORATE RESTRUCTURING ............................................................ 130
7. Challenges for the Millennium ............................................................................ 131
7.1. CIVIL UNREST ANDPOLITICAL UNCERTAINTY. .............................. 131
7.2. BORDER DISPUTES .................................................................................. 132
7.3. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT MITlGATlON ........................................... 133
8. Conelusions ......................................................................................................... 136
Referenees ................................................................................................................ 137
CHAPTER 7. FISHERIES .......................................................................................... 145
J.L.SUAREZ, G.GONZALEZ, S. FERIA .................................................................. 145
1. The State of Resourees. The Generalisation of Overfishing ............................... 145
1.1. THE EVOLUTION OF CATCHES THROUGHOUT HISTORY ............... 145
1.2. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISHING POTENTIAL.. ............ 148
2. New Fishing Powers: The Boom in the Market, A Slump for Fishers ............... 149
2.1. FISHING IN THE POST-INDUSTRIAL ERA ............................................. 150
2.2. SUPPLY AND DEMAND OF FISH PRODUCTS ....................................... 152
3. Fishing and the Govemanee of the Oeeans ......................................................... 154
3.1. THE CRISIS OF THE BIO-ECONOMIC MODEL AND THE
NAT lONALIZA TlON OF RESOURCES ........................................................... 154
3.2. THE HIGH SEAS: AN INTERNATIONAL CHALLENGE ........................ 156
3.3. NEW APPROACHES TO FISHERIES MANAGEMENT:
DEREGULA TlON, DECENTRALIZAT lON AND PRIVA TlZAT lON ............ 157
Referenees ................................................................................................................ 159
Vlll CONTENTS
CHAPTER 8. THE USE OF THE SEA FOR RECREA TION AND TOURISM ....... 161
M.B. ORAMS .............................................................................................................. 161
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 161
2. The Importance ofthe Sea .................................................................................... 162
3. The Importance ofMarine Settings for Recreation and Tourism ......................... 163
3.1 THE RAPID GROWTH OF MARINE RECREATION AND TOURISM .... 164
3.2 THE DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE TOURISM ACTIVITIES ................... 167
4. Problems and Challenges for the 21 st Century ...................................................... 169
4.1 POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS AND AREAS FOR RESEARCH ..................... 171
References ................................................................................................................ 172
CHAPTER 9. MANAGING MARINE WASTE DISPOSAL .................................... 175
R.C. BALLINGER ....................................................................................................... 175
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 175
2. The Waste Issue ................................................................................................... 176
2.1 WASTE CHARACTERISATION ............................................................... 176
2.2 GEOGRAPHY OF MARINE W ASTE .......................................................... 177
3. The Context for Marine Waste Management: General Issues and Trends .......... 178
3.1. EARLYTRENDS ....................................................................................... 178
3.2. AWARENESS AND INSTITUTIONALISATION OF THE
ENVIRONMENT ................................................................................................. 178
3.3. GENERAL WASTEAND POLLUTION CONTROL TRENDS ............... 179
3.3.1. Waste reduction and minimisation ........................................................ 179
3.3.2. Waste recycling, recovery and reuse ..................................................... 180
3.3.3. Waste treatment and disposal ................................................................ 180
3.3.4 The solution to pollution is dilution ........................................................ 181
3.3.5 Points of entry to environment ............................................................... 181
3.4. INSTITUTIONALISATION OF WASTE MANAGEMENT .................... 182
3.4.1. Global and regional institutions ............................................................. 182
3.4.2 Sectoral institutionalisation of waste management.. ............................... 182
3.5. THE PRECAUTIONARY APPROACH AND MARINE WASTE
DISPOSAL ........................................................................................................... 183
4. Discussion: Current, Emerging and Future Marine Waste Issues ...................... 184
4.1. CURRENT ISSUES ..................................................................................... 184
4.1.1. Pollutant sources .................................................................................... 184
4.1.2. Economic issues .................................................................................... 187
4.1.3. Public awareness issues ......................................................................... 187
4.2. EMERGING AND FUTURE ISSUES ......................................................... 188
4.2.1 Emerging issues ...................................................................................... 188
4.2.2 Future issues .......................................................................................... 189
5. Conclusions: Final Comments ............................................................................. 190
References ................................................................................................................ 191
CHAPTER 10. MARINE CONSERVA TION AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 199
S. PULLEN .................................................................................................................. 199
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 199
2. Out ofSight -Out ofMind .................................................................................. 201
CONTENTS ix
3. Marine Resouree Management -Sustainable Development! ............................... 203
3.1. FISHERlES ................................................................................................... 203
3.2. COASTAL RESOURCES - CONSERVING COASTLINES ..................... 205
3.3. OFFSHORE RESOURCES ........................................................................... 205
4. Marine Nature Conservation -Proteeting Marine Wildlife and Habitats ............ 206
4.1. PROTECTING BIODIVERSITY ................................................................ 206
4.2. MARINE SITE PROTECTION ................................................................... 207
5. Marine Pollution - Prevention and Cure! ............................................................ 208
5.1. LAND BASED MARINE POLLUTION ..................................................... 208
5.2. SHIPPING - REDUCING THE RlSK FROM OFFSHORE ACTIVITIES 209
6. Awareness, Human Resourees and Partnerships ................................................. 210
Referenees ................................................................................................................ 213
CHAPTER 11. THE NORTH ATLANTIC ................................................................ 215
LEWIS M. ALEXANDER ........................................................................................... 215
1. Geographie Site ................................................................................................... 216
1.1. BATHYMETRY .......................................................................................... 216
1.2. OCEAN CIRCULATION ............................................................................ 217
1.3. LIVING MARINE RESOURCES ................................................................ 217
1.4. OFFSHORE OlL AND GAS ....................................................................... 218
2. Historieal Baekground ......................................................................................... 218
3. The 18th and 19th Centuries ................................................................................ 220
4. The 20th Century ................................................................................................. 220
5. Managing the North Atlantie Eeosystem ............................................................. 222
6. Living Marine Resourees .................................................................................... 222
7. Northeast Atlantie ................................................................................................ 224
8. Northwest Atlantie .............................................................................................. 224
9. The High Seas ..................................................................................................... 225
10. Marieulture ........................................................................................................ 226
11. Marine Pollution ................................................................................................ 226
12. Commereial Shipping ........................................................................................ 227
13. Other Aetivities ................................................................................................. 228
14. Potential Future Trends in the North Atlantie ................................................... 228
Referenees and Notes ............................................................................................... 229
CHAPTER 12. THE MEDITERRANEAN AND BLACK SEAS .............................. 231
A. VALLEGA .............................................................................................................. 231
1. The Large Mediterranean Marine Region ........................................................... 231
2. Artieulated Physieal Contexts ............................................................................. 232
3. Variability in Eeologieal Conditions ................................................................... 234
4. The Changing Geopolitieal Context .................................................................... 235
5. Sea Use Development ......................................................................................... 240
6. Regional Co-operation ......................................................................................... 244
Referenees ................................................................................................................ 250
CHAPTER 13. MULTILATERAL MANAGEMENT OF NORTHEAST ASIAN
SEAS: PROBLEMS AND PROGNOSIS ................................................................... 253
MARK J. VALENCIA ................................................................................................. 253
x CONTENTS
1. Introduetion ......................................................................................................... 253
2. Ongoing and Potential Cooperation: Enhaneing the Epistemie Community ....... 255
2.1. SAFETY AT SEA ........................................................................................ 255
2.1.1. Law and Order at Sea ............................................................................. 256
2.2 FISHERIES ................................................................................................... 257
2.2.1. Existing International Regimes and Their Inadequaeies ........................ 257
China and Japan ........................................................................................................... 257
2.3. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ......................................... 264
2.3 .1. Overview ............................................................................................... 264
2.3.2. Initiatives for Marine Environmental Proteetion and Their Defieieneies
.......................................................................................................................... 266
2.3.3 Inadequaeies ofExisting Regimes and Ways Forward ........................... 268
2.4. MARINE SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH .......................................................... 270
2.5 NAV AL COOPERA TION ............................................................................ 271
2.6 THE NEXT STEP: A REGIME REGULATING THE USE OF FORCE AND
MILITARY AND INTELLIGENCE GATHERING ACTlVITlES IN THE EEZ
.............................................................................................................................. 273
2.6.1 The Way Forward ................................................................................... 274
3. Conelusions ......................................................................................................... 275
Referenees and Notes ............................................................................................... 278
CHAPTER 14. THE ARCTle OCEAN ...................................................................... 283
Yu.G. MIKHA YLICHENKO ...................................................................................... 283
1. Introduetion ............................................................................................................. 283
2. Resourees ............................................................................................................. 283
2.1. MINERAL RA W MATERIAL RESOURCES ............................................. 283
2.1.1. Hydroearbon raw materials .................................................................... 283
2.1.2. Minerals .................................................................................................. 284
2.2. SPATIAL RESOURCE ................................................................................. 284
2.3. TRANSPORTATION RESOURCE .............................................................. 285
2.3.1. Present status and close prospeets .......................................................... 285
2.3.2. Potential resouree ................................................................................... 287
2.4. BIORESOURCES ......................................................................................... 288
2.5. TOURISM ..................................................................................................... 290
3. Environmental Status ........................................................................................... 290
4. Ethnie Problems ................................................................................................... 291
5. International Environmental and Seientifie Co-operation .................................... 292
5.1. INFRASTRUCTURE .................................................................................... 292
5.2. COOPERATION IN GLOBAL CHANGE STUDIES .................................. 292
6. Perspeetive ........................................................................................................... 294
6.1. ECOSYSTEM RESOURCE .......................................................................... 294
6.2. THE RUSSIAN FACTOR ............................................................................. 295
7. Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 295
Main Sourees ............................................................................................................ 296
CHAPTER 15. THE SOUTHERN OCEAN ............................................................... 297
DONALD R. ROTHWELL .......................................................................................... 297