The North East of India

214 Pages·2017·1.41 MB·English

Leverhulme International Network
Continuity and Change in Indian Federalism
Timeline Papers

The North-East of India: Political Dynamics and Issues
Eds. Harihar Bhattacharyya and Katharine Adeney
Editorial Note on the Timeline Papers
Professor Harihar Bhattacharyya, Burdwan University
Professor Katharine Adeney, Nottingham University

These eight full length research papers - one each from the eight
states in the north-east of India - are based on both research and
insider knowledge. They are written by scholars who are intimately
familiar with the field and mostly based in the region. During the
course of our three year-long detailed empirical survey research
(2014-17) funded by the Leverhulme Trust UK, we commissioned
these timeline papers as part of the research strand on ‘Ethnic
Conflict Management in India’s North-east’. They are designed to
help the readers place the elite interviews carried out as part of the
project into context.
In writing these timeline reports, each contributor was given a
template to follow, which has given the papers a reasonable level of
consistency. Since the states in the region have had different and
complex (and often doubtful) trajectories of integration with the
Union of India, each contributor was advised to address this issue
within the timeline. Thus these timelines demonstrate the different
state trajectories and how they have operated within India. We also
advised the authors to reflect upon the current issues in the states
with respect to the rise of ‘Hindu nationalism’ and its import in these
States. The authors also were requested to reflect on the state
specific context in India’s economic liberalization.

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Harihar Bhattacharyya, Ph. D, LSE (London) is Professor of Political Science, the University
of Burdwan, West Bengal (India). He was Baden-Wurrttemburg Fellow at the South Asia
Institute (1998), Heidelberg University; DAAD Fellow at the South Asia Institute, Heidelberg
University (2007) and Visiting Professor at Heidelberg University (2009-10); M L Singhvi
Fellow at Hull University, UK (2002); Visiting Research Professor at the Institute of
Federalism, Fribourg, Switzerland (1998-99). He has published single authored/jointly edited
11 books, and more than 100 journal articles/book chapters. His single authored books include:
(2010) Federalism in Asia: India, Pakistan and Malaysia (London: Routledge); (1999)
Communism in Tripura (Delhi: Ajanta); and (2001) India as a Multicultural Federation etc
(Fribourg: Switzerland). He published articles in India Review (2017)(USA) and Regional
Federal Studies (UK) (2015), Economic and Political Weekly; and South Asia Research
(London). His forthcoming books are: (2018) Radical Politics in India’s North East (London:
Routledge), and (jointly with Subrata K Mitra) Politics and Governance in Indian States:
Bihar, West Bengal and Tripura (Singapore: World Scientific, 2018). He has been engaged in
global level collaborative researches since 1996 including those on policy studies,
peacemaking, and constitution drafting. (email:
grouping involving over 700 staff and 250 postgraduates from 18 different University
centres/institutes.
Jhumpa Mukherjee (Gold Medalist), PhD, is Assistant Professor of Political Science at St.
Xavier’s College, Kolkata, under Calcutta University. She is the author of Conflict Resolution
in Multicultural Societies: The Indian Experience (Sage 2014) and The World of Human Rights
(Concept 2014). She has contributed chapters in edited books and has published articles on
contemporary social and political issues in nationally and internationally acclaimed journals
and has participated in national and international seminars. She supervised a project on the
north east which was a part of the three year International Research project on Continuity and
Change in Indian Federalism in the Age of Coalition Governments funded by the Leverhulme
Trust, UK. She is an Advisory member of the Centre for Decentralization and Rural
Development, Rabindra Bharati University, Kolkata.. Her areas of research interest include
federalism and regional movements in India, identity politics and human rights. Email:
Rawat, New Delhi, 1999. He has edited, Making of the Union: Merger of Princely States and
Excluded Areas with India, New Delhi, Akansha, 2007 Bridging Region and Nation: Essays in
Honour of Prof Amalendu Guha: Professor Amalendu Guha Commemoration Volume,
Primus, Delhi, 2017, Playing With Nature: Essays on Environmental History and Politics with
special Reference to North East India, Manohar, Delhi, 2016, Force of Nature: Essays in
Environmental history and Politics, Manohar, 2015 (email:
Arunachal Pradesh: From NEFA to Statehood in Indian Federalism
Jhumpa Mukherjee

Geography and Demographics

Arunachal Pradesh, India’s land of the rising sun, is acknowledged to be one of the most
splendid, variegated and multilingual tribal areas of the world. It is a sparsely populated hilly
tract lying on the extreme north-east of India comprising approximately 83,573 square
kilometers. Among all the north east states, Arunachal Pradesh has the largest land area but, its
population is 0.11 per cent of India’s population and only 2.85 per cent of the population of
Northeast India. All the States of Northeast India, except Mizoram, have larger populations
than that of Arunachal Pradesh. It is bordered by Bhutan on its west (160 km), the Tibet region
of China on its northern and north east border (1080 km) and Myanmar (440km) on the eastern
border and by Assam and Nagaland in the south. Located at the foothills of Himalayas, it has
varied topography—snow capped mountains, innumerable rivers, rich vegetation and wild life.
The Pradesh is known to be rich in flora, fauna, minerals and is acclaimed to be one of the most
important biodiversity hotspot of the world. The majestic beauty of Arunachal can be seen in the
way the great Brahmaputra river curves around the Himalayas, to enter Arunachal as the Siang.
It meets the Lohit, another great river that originates in China, shortly after it moves into the
plains; A number of big rivers like the Kameng, Subansiri and Dibang flow into the
Brahmaputra; shaping out distinctive valleys to form the natural divisions that make up the
hilly state.

During the British colonial rule in India, the region was known as the North East Frontier Agency
(NEFA) and constituted a part of the state of Assam. At the time of independence in 1947, the
territory which comprises present day Arunachal Pradesh was under Part-B of the Sixth Schedule
of the Constitution as tribal areas within what constituted then Assam. It included Baliapara
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Frontier Tract, Tirap frontier Tract, Abor Hills District, Mishmi Hills district and the Naga tribal
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areas. Together, these districts were called the North-East Frontier Agency in 1951.
Arunachal Pradesh achieved statehood within Indian federalism on 20 February 1987. Mostly
inhabited by tribal groups, Arunachal Pradesh is divided into 20 districts---Tawang, West
Kameng, East Kameng, Papum Pare, Kurung Kumey, Kra Daadi, Lower Subansiri, Upper
Subansiri, West Siang, East Siang, Central Siang, Upper Siang, Upper Dibang Valley, Lower
Dibang Valley, Anjaw, Lohit, Nansai, Changlang, Tirap, Longding. Earlier Arunachal Pradesh
comprised of 16 districts; however, the enactment of the Arunachal Pradesh (Re-Organization
of Districts) (Amendment) Act, 2013, led to the creation of four new districts - Kra Daadi,
Namsai, Siang and Lower Siang.
Arunachal Pradesh is a multi linguistic, multi religious and multi ethnic state. According to the
Census of 2011, Arunachal Pradesh has the population of 1.38 million. The density of
population is 17 per sq km and sex ratio is 938 in 2011 as compared to 893 in 2001. The
population density stands in sharp contrast to the all India population density of 382 people per
square kilometer in the country. The rate of literacy as per the 2011 census is 65.38 %, an
appreciable increase of 11 percent from the 2001census (54.34%) but far behind the national
average of 74.04%.

Arunachal is predominantly a tribal state. The State’s main ethnic communities, each having
its own distinctive customs and cultural traditions, are: Abor, Aka, Apatani, Dafla, Galong ,
Khampti , Khowa , Mishmi, Idu, Taroan ,Momba , Sherdukpen , Singpho , Hrusso , Tagin ,
Khamba and Adi. These tribes have a lot of ethnic similarities but due to geographical isolation
certain distinctive characteristics in terms of customs, dresses and traits have developed.
Moreover different tribes follow different religions like the Monpas and Sherdukpens follow
Buddhism, Adis, Akas, Nishing, Apatanis, Mishmis, Tangsas worship sun and moon as their
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God, the Noctes practice Vaishnavism. The total Scheduled Tribe population of the State,
according to the Census of 2011, is 95,1821 which is 68.8% (in 2001 census the ST population
was 64,2% of the total population, thus a marginal increase in population). Being
multilinguistic the different tribes speak myriad languages and dialects and possibly 30-50
distinct languages and dialects and most of them belong to the Tibeto-Burman language family
like Nyishi, Dafla, Miji, Adi, Gallong,Wancho, Tagin, Hill Miri, Mishul, Mohpa, Nocte, Aka,
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Tangsa, Khamti. A considerable number of Assamese and Nepali speakers can also be found.
Most languages do not have a script of their own and use either the Roman script or the
Assamese script. In such a sparsely populated state, six different scripts are in use – Assamese,
Devanagri, Hingna, Mon, Roman, and Tibetan. English is the official language of the state.
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The 50 Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India (2012-2013) states that
because of the existence of large number of linguistic minorities (the Census of 2001 identified

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http://arunachalpradesh.gov.in/rural/html/glance.htm

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http://arunachalpradesh.gov.in/rural/html/glance.htm
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http://mdoner.gov.in/content/arunachal-pradesh-2

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the following linguistic minorities in the state: Nissi/Dafla (18.97%), Adi (17.6%), Bengali
(8.85%), Nepali (8.64%), Hindi (7.39%), the State government is advised to take effective
policy measures for promotion and protection of linguistic minorities. The State Government
should ensure translation and publication of Rules, Regulations, Notices, etc. in the relevant
minority languages for the benefit of linguistic minorities where the speakers constitute 15
percent or more of the District/Tehsil/ Taluka/Municipality population. The Commission,
however, expressed its anguish at the non availability of response on behalf of the state of
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Arunachal Pradesh regarding measures taken for them.
The state is multi-religious, with Christian followers slightly higher than the Hindus. Many of
the tribes practice animism.

Table1: Major Religions
Religion Percentage of followers
Christian 30.26%
Hindu 29.04%
Muslim 1.95%
Sikh 0.24%
Buddhist 11.77%
Jain 0.06%
Other Religions 26.20%

Census of India 2011

Most popular is Donyi Polo which involves the worship of the sun and the moon. Over the
years there has been a fast decline of tribal indigenous faith. According to the 1981 census,
the State had 51.6% Donyi Polo followers which have come down to 26.20% in 2011. A large
number of the tribal communities practicing indigenous faith have converted to Christianity.
In 2001 Christianity was followed by only 18.7 % but in 2011 Christianity believers increased
to 30.26%. One of the possible reasons for this conversion to Christianity, as said by the new
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converts, is to “escape from elaborate expensive pujas that Donyi Polo priests demand”.
Ethnic Composition
The state is inhabited by a number of tribes and sub-tribes having their own distinct languages
and dialects, belonging mostly to the Tibeto-Burmese language family. The tribes have been

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50 Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India (2012-2013)
http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf
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Hindustan Times, Nov. 18, 2016.
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residing here for centuries and have their own unique culture, traditions and follow their own
customary laws and dispute-resolution mechanisms, which, to our greatest surprise, are highly
democratic in nature. The principal tribes are Adis, Nishi, Apatani, Tagin, Mismi, Khampti,
Noite, Wancho, Tangsha, Singpho, Monpa, Sherdukpen and Aka. These tribes speak their own
tongues.
The tribal population believed in varied cultural ideals, for instance, the Daflas, Bangnis, the
Monpas were influenced by Buddhist ideals. The Miri along with the Daflas and Tagin lived in
the hills. The Apatanis were believed to be more advanced. They were agriculturists. Besides this
the Abor who called themselves as Adi lived in the valley of Arunachal Pradesh. Besides them,
the Membas, Ramos and Boris formed minor groups. The Mishmis exists as Idus, Taraons, and
Kamans. They excelled in handicrafts.
The Adis are the major group of tribes inhabiting the West Siang district. The different sub tribes
groups of the Adis are Gallong, Janbe, Karka, Memba, Ashing, Bori, Bogum, Bagi, Pailibo,
Minyong etc. In the Adi society descent is traced through the father and the property devolves
on the male line and the children belong to the father’s clan. The elder son generally set up their
separate house-holds even while the father is alive though on principle. They have equal shares
on the parents property. They do not dispute with the youngest brother who stays with the
parents and inherits the ancestral house by common consent. The Adis by nature are democratic
and have a unique sense of history. They have well organized village council called 'Kebang'.
The Nishis, one of the major tribes of Arunachal Pradesh inhabiting in East Kameng, Papum
Pare,Lower Subansiri, Kurung Kumey districts of Arunachal Pradesh, belong to the Indo-
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Mongoloid group. The nishis speak the Nyishi language which belongs to the Sino-Tibetan
family. They are primarily agriculturalists and practice jhoom cultivation. They are believers of
the Donyi-Polo faith, a religion which commemorates their ancestors. The Apatanis belong to
the Tibeto-Mongoloid stock. They draw their lineage from the patriarchal side. They are divided
into two classes---the Gyuchii and the Gyutti who do not intermarry. The Apatanis are
agriculturalists but unlike the Nyishsis , they practice permanent type of cultivation. They are
governed by traditional village councils consisting of one or two Buliyang representative from
each clan whose position is hereditary. The Mishmis live along the valleys of the Debang and
Luhit rivers. Each family group is autonomous and they draw their descent through the paternal
line. The Khampti are found in the Sagaing division and they are followers of Theravada
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Buddhism. They are divided into classes, each signifying a distinct status in the social hierarchy.

Table 2: Population of Major STs census of India 2001
Sl.No. Name of the ST Population returned in 2001 census

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arunachal.adivasi.in
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arunachal.adivasi.in
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1 All Scheduled Tribes 705,158
2 Abor 19,927
3 Adi 32,582
4 Adi Gallong 48,126
5 Adi Minyong 33,984
6 Adi Padam 11,625
7 Aka 5,140
8 Any Naga Tribes 6,978
9 Apatani 27,576
10 Bangni 7,870
11 Dafla 45,276
12 Deori 5,693
13 Galong 27,239
14 Idu/Chulikata Mishmi 9,350
15 Khampti 12,890
16 Miji 5,721
17 Mishing/Miri 13,591
18 Mishmi 25,161
9 Monpa 41,983
20 Nishang 21,907
21 Nissi 87,656
22 Nocte 33,680
23 Tagin 39,091
24 Tangsa 20,962
25 Tawang Monpa 7,500
26 Wancho 47,788
Source: Census of India 2001
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