The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings

508 Pages·1999·6.35 MB·English

by  Bart D. Ehrman

THE NEW TESTAMENT

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Bart D. Ehrman
University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill

New York Oxford
Oxford University Press

2000

THE NEW TESTAMENT

A HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION
TO THE EARLY CHRISTIAN WRITINGS

Second Edition

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Oxford University Press

Oxford New York
Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogotá
Buenos Aires Calcutta Cape Town
Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi
Florence Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi
Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City
Mumbai Nairobi Paris São Paulo Singapore
Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw

and associated companies in
Berlin Ibadan

Copyright © 2000 by Bart D. Ehrman

Published by Oxford University Press, Inc.
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http://www.oup-usa.org
1-800-334-4249

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in
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photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Ehrman, Bart D.
The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early
Christian Writings / Bart D. Ehrman. — 2nd ed.
p.cm.
Includes biographical references and index.
ISBN 0-19-512639-4 (pbk. : alk paper)
1. Bible. N.T.—Introductions I. Title
BS2330.2.E36 2000
255.6’7—dc21 99–22360 CIP

Printing (last digit): 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper

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To David R. Adams

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BRIEF TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1
What Is the New Testament? The Early Christians and Their Literature . . . . . .1
Chapter 2
The World of Early Christian Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Chapter 3
The Traditions of Jesus in Their Greco-Roman Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Chapter 4
The Christian Gospels: A Literary and Historical Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Chapter 5
Jesus, the Suffering Son of God: The Gospel according to Mark . . . . . . . . . . .60
Chapter 6
The Synoptic Problem and Its Significance for Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Chapter 7
Jesus, the Jewish Messiah: The Gospel according to Matthew . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Chapter 8
Jesus, the Savior of the World: The Gospel according to Luke . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Chapter 9
Luke’s Second Volume: The Acts of the Apostles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Chapter 10 Jesus, the Man Sent from Heaven: The Gospel according to John . . . . . . . . .141
Chapter 11 From John’s Jesus to the Gnostic Christ:
The Johannine Epistles and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
Chapter 12 Jesus from Different Perspectives: Other Gospels in Early Christianity . . . . . .179
Chapter 13 The Historical Jesus: Sources, Problems, and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
Chapter 14 Excurus: The Historian and the Problem of Miracle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
Chapter 15 Jesus in Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
Chapter 16 Jesus, the Apocalyptic Prophet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
Chapter 17 From Jesus to the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
Chapter 18 Paul the Apostle: The Man and His Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Chapter 19 Paul and His Apostolic Mission: 1 Thessalonians as a Test Case . . . . . . . . . .276
Chapter 20 Paul and the Crises of His Churches: 1 and 2 Corinthians,
Galatians, Philippians, and Philemon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
Chapter 21 The Gospel according to Paul: The Letter to the Romans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319
Chapter 22 Does the Tradition Miscarry? Paul in Relation to Jesus, James,
Thecla, and Theudas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332
Chapter 23 In the Wake of the Apostle: The Deutero-Pauline and Pastoral Epistles . . . .341
Chapter 24 From Paul’s Female Colleagues to the Pastor’s Intimidated Women:
The Oppression of Women in Early Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363
Chapter 25 Christians and Jews: Hebrews, Barnabas, and Later Anti-Jewish Literature . .375
Chapter 26 Christians and Pagans: 1 Peter, the Letters of Ignatius,
the Martyrdom of Polycarp, and Later Apologetic Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . .392
Chapter 27 Christians and Christians: James, the Didache, Polycarp,
1 Clement, Jude, and 2 Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
Chapter 28 Christians and the Cosmos: The Revelation of John,
The Shepherd of Hermas, and the Apocalypse of Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
Chapter 29 Epilogue: Do We Have the Original New Testament? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .442
Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .451
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461

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Maps, Timelines, and Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xviii
Preface to the Second Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xix
Preface to the First Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxi
Notes on Suggestions for Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxiii
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxv
Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxvii

Chapter 1
What Is the New Testament? The Early Christians and Their Literature . . .1

Box 1.1 The Canon of Scripture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

• The Diversity of Early Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Box 1.2 The Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . .4

• The New Testament Canon of Scripture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Box 1.3 The Common Era and Before the Common Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Box 1.4 The Layout of the New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

• Summary and Implications for our Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

• Some Additional Reflections: The Historian and the Believer . . . . . . . . . . .13

Chapter 2
The World of Early Christian Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

• The Problem of Beginnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

• One Remarkable Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Box 2.1 Pagan and Gentile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
Box 2.2 The Greco-Roman World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

• The Environment of the New Testament: Religions
in the Greco-Roman World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Box 2.3 Divine Rulers as Savior Gods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
Box 2.4 The Roman Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Box 2.5 Christianity as a Mystery Cult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

• Judaism as a Greco-Roman Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Box 2.6 Other Jewish Miracle-Working Sons of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40

Chapter 3
The Traditions of Jesus in Their Greco-Roman Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

• Oral Traditions behind the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Box 3.1 Orality and Literacy in the Ancient World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48

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Box 3.2 Differences between Mark and John
on the Time of Jesus’ Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

• Some Additional Reflections: The Authors of the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Chapter 4
The Christian Gospels: A Literary and Historical Introduction . . . . . . . . .55

• The Question of Genre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55

• Biography as a Greco-Roman Genre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Box 4.1 Plutarch on Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57

• The Gospels as Ancient Biographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58

Chapter 5
Jesus, the Suffering Son of God: The Gospel according to Mark . . . . . . . .60

• The Beginning of the Gospel: Jesus the Messiah,
the Son of God Who Fulfills the Scripture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Box 5.1 The Jewish Messiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61

• Jesus the Authoritative Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63

• Jesus the Opposed Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Box 5.2 Jewish Scribes, Pharisees, Herodians, Sadducees,
and Chief Priests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64

• Jesus the Misunderstood Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

• Jesus the Acknowledged Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Box 5.3 The Messianic Secret in Mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

• Jesus the Suffering Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Box 5.4 Son of God and Son of Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70

• Jesus the Crucified Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Box 5.5 The Charge of Blasphemy according to Mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71

• Jesus the Vindicated Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

• Conclusion: Mark and His Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74

Chapter 6
The Synoptic Problem and Its Significance for Interpretation . . . . . . . . . .76

• Methods for Studying the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76

• The Synoptic Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76

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Box 6.1 Ironing Out the Problems:
One Potential Difficulty in Mark’s Account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Box 6.2 The Contents of Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81

• The Methodological Significance of the Four-source Hypothesis . . . . . . . . .82

Chapter 7
Jesus, the Jewish Messiah: The Gospel according to Matthew . . . . . . . . . .84

• The Importance of Beginnings:
Jesus the Jewish Messiah in Fulfillment of the Jewish Scriptures . . . . . . . . .85
Box 7.1 Matthew’s Scheme of Fourteen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
Box 7.2 The Women in Matthew’s Genealogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89

• Jesus and His Forerunner from Matthew’s Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90

• The Portrayal of Jesus in Matthew:
The Sermon on the Mount as a Springboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
Box 7.3 The Golden Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95

• Jesus and the Jewish Cultic Practices Prescribed by the Law . . . . . . . . . . . . .96

• Jesus Rejected by the Jewish Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
Box 7.4 Gentiles in Matthew’s Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98

• Matthew and His Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Box 7.5 Was Matthew a Jew? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101

Chapter 8
Jesus, the Savior of the World: The Gospel according to Luke . . . . . . . .103

• The Comparative Method and the Gospel of Luke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103

• A Comparative Overview of the Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105

• The Preface to Luke’s Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Box 8.1 Apologetic Literature in Early Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106

• Luke’s Birth Narrative in Comparative Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Box 8.2 Historical Problems with Luke’s Birth Narrative . . . . . . . . . . . .109
Box 8.3 The Virgin Birth in Matthew and Luke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110

• From Jew to Gentile: Luke’s Portrayal of Jesus the Rejected Prophet . . . . .112

• Luke’s Distinctive Emphases throughout His Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
Box 8.4 Jesus’ Bloody Sweat in Luke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
Box 8.5 Jesus as a Righteous Martyr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
Box 8.6 The Institution of the Lord’s Supper in Luke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119

• Conclusion: Luke in Comparative Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120

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Chapter 9
Luke’s Second Volume: The Acts of the Apostles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122

• The Genre of Acts and Its Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Box 9.1 The Book of Acts: An Ancient Novel? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124

• The Thematic Approach to Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124

• From Gospel to Acts: The Opening Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125
Box 9.2 Luke’s Mysterious Two Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127

• Luke’s Artistry as a Storyteller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128

• Themes in the Speeches in Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
Box 9.3 The Death of Judas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
Box 9.4 Christianity before Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136

• In Sum: Prominent Themes of Luke-Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137

• The Author of Luke-Acts and His Audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137

Chapter 10 Jesus, the Man Sent from Heaven: The Gospel according to John . . . . . .141

• The Gospel of John from a Literary-Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
Box 10.1 Jesus’ Signs in the Fourth Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
Box 10.2 “The Jews” in the Fourth Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144

• The Gospel of John from a Thematic Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144

• The Gospel of John from a Comparative Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
Box 10.3 Signs and Faith in the Fourth Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
Box 10.4 Jesus and the “I Am” Sayings in John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149

• The Gospel of John from a Redactional Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149

• The Socio-Historical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
Box 10.5 The Death of the Beloved Disciple
in the Johannine Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154

• The Gospel of John from a Socio-Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
Box 10.6 John’s De-Apocalypticized Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160

• The Author of the Fourth Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160

Chapter 11 From John’s Jesus to the Gnostic Christ:
The Johannine Epistles and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162

• The Questions of Genre and Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
Box 11.1 A Letter from Greco-Roman Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163

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• The New Testament Epistolary Literature and the Contextual Method . . .164
Box 11.2 The Gospel and Epistles of John: Some Thematic Similarities .165

• The Johannine Epistles from a Contextual Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166

• Reflections on the Contextual Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168

• Beyond the Johannine Community: The Rise of Christian Gnosticism . . .170
Box 11.3 House Churches in Early Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Box 11.4 How Do You Know a Gnostic When You See One? . . . . . . . . .173
Box 11.5 Gnostics and the Jewish Scriptures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174

• Gnostics and the Johannine Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177

Chapter 12 Jesus from Different Perspectives: Other Gospels in Early Christianity . .179

• Narrative Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
Box 12.1 The Gospel of the Ebionites and Early Gospel Harmonies . . . .181

• Sayings Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
Box 12.2 Judas Thomas as Jesus’ Twin Brother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Box 12.3 The Older Sayings of the Gospel of Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189

• Infancy Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190

• Conclusion: The Other Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192

Chapter 13 The Historical Jesus: Sources, Problems, and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194

• Problems with Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194

• Non-Christian Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
Box 13.1 Christianity as a Superstition in the Roman World . . . . . . . . .196
Box 13.2 The Testimony of Flavius Josephus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198

• Christian Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198

• Using Our Sources: Some of the Basic Rules of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201

• Specific Criteria and Their Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
Box 13.3 Aramaisms as a Criterion of Authenticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203

• Conclusion: Reconstructing the Life of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207

Chapter 14 Excursus: The Historian and the Problem of Miracle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208

• Miracles in the Modern World and in Antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208

• The Historian and Historical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210

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Chapter 15 Jesus in Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213

• Political Crises in Palestine and Their Ramifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213

• The Formation of Jewish Sects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
Box 15.1 Divine Revelation in the Dead Sea Scrolls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219

• Popular Modes of Resistance to Oppression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222

• An Ideology of Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225
Box 15.2 Prophecy and Apocalypticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227

• Jesus in His Apocalyptic Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228

Chapter 16 Jesus, the Apocalyptic Prophet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229

• Considering the Rules of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229

• Considering the Specific Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230

• The Beginning and End as Keys to the Middle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232

• The Apocalyptic Deeds of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
Box 16.1 Explaining Away the Apocalyptic Traditions:
Seeking the Lost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
Box 16.2 Explaining Away the Apocalyptic Traditions:
Setting a Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
Box 16.3 Was Jesus a Cynic Philosopher? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
Box 16.4 The Temple Incident as an Enacted Parable . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237

• The Apocalyptic Teachings of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
Box 16.5 The Cosmic Deliverer of Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
Box 16.6 Jesus and “Family Values” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246

• The Apocalyptic Death of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
Box 16.7 Jesus and Judas, the Betrayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249

Chapter 17 From Jesus to the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252

• The Beginning of Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252

• Jesus’ Resurrection from an Apocalyptic Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253
Box 17.1 Jesus, the Messiah, and the Resurrection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254

• Jesus’ Death, according to the Scriptures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255

• The Emergence of Different Understandings of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256

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Box 17.2 Vicarious Suffering in Jewish Martyrologies
and Other Greco-Roman Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257

Chapter 18 Paul the Apostle: The Man and His Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260

• The Study of Paul: Methodological Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
Box 18.1 The Pauline Corpus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262
Box 18.2 Other Sources for the Life of Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265

• The Life of Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266
Box 18.3 Paul on the Road to Damascus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269

Chapter 19 Paul and His Apostolic Mission: 1 Thessalonians as a Test Case . . . . . . .276

• The Founding of the Church in Thessalonica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276

• The Beginnings of the Thessalonian Church:
A Socio-Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282
Box 19.1 Rules for a Private Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283

• The Church at Thessalonica after Paul’s Departure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
Box 19.2 Charges against the Christians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
Box 19.3 The Thessalonians’ Perplexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .288

• Conclusion: Paul the Apostle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .288

Chapter 20 Paul and the Crises of His Churches:
1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, and Philemon . . . . . . . . . . .290

• 1 Corinthians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
Box 20.1 Possibilities of Existence in the Afterlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296

• 2 Corinthians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299
Box 20.2 The Partitioning of 2 Corinthians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .301

• Galatians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303
Box 20.3 The Logic of the Opponents’ Position in Galatia . . . . . . . . . . .306
Box 20.4 Cephas and Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307

• Philippians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .311
Box 20.5 The Christ Hymn of Philippians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
Box 20.6 Was Paul Contemplating Suicide? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315

• Philemon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316

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Chapter 21 The Gospel according to Paul: The Letter to the Romans . . . . . . . . . . . .319

• The Occasion and Purpose of the Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319
Box 21.1 The Beginnings of the Roman Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320

• The Theme of the Epistle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .321
Box 21.2 Paul’s Gospel to the Romans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323

• Pauline Models for Salvation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324
Box 21.3 Two Paths of Salvation in Paul? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
Box 21.4 Judicial and Participationist Models of Salvation in Paul . . . . .328

• The Flow of Paul’s Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
Box 21.5 Other Models of Salvation in Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330

• Conclusion: Paul and the Romans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331

Chapter 22 Does the Tradition Miscarry?
Paul in Relation to Jesus, James, Thecla, and Theudas . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332

• Paul in Relation to What Came Before . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332
Box 22.1 Jesus and Paul: Some of the Similarities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
Box 22.2 Jesus and Paul: Some of the Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336

• Paul in Relation to What Came After . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336

• Conclusion: Pauline Christianities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340

Chapter 23 In the Wake of the Apostle: The Deutero-Pauline and Pastoral Epistles .341

• Pseudonymity in the Ancient World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
Box 23.1 Paul’s Third Letter to the Corinthians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343

• The Deutero-Pauline Epistles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
Box 23.2 The Resurrection of Believers in Paul and Colossians . . . . . . .349
Box 23.3 The “Household Rules” in Colossians and Ephesians . . . . . . . .350
Box 23.4 The Vocabulary of Salvation in Paul and Ephesians . . . . . . . . .352

• The Pastoral Epistles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354

• The Historical Situation and Authorship of the Pastoral Epistles . . . . . . . .357
Box 23.5 Church Hierarchy in Ignatius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .361

• Conclusion: The Post-Pauline Pastoral Epistles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .361

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