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THE NEW TESTAMENT 1958_efm1 4/24/00 3:04 PM Page i 1958_efm1 4/24/00 3:04 PM Page ii Bart D. Ehrman University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill New York Oxford Oxford University Press 2000 THE NEW TESTAMENT A HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION TO THE EARLY CHRISTIAN WRITINGS Second Edition 1958_efm1 4/24/00 3:04 PM Page iii Oxford University Press Oxford New York Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogotá Buenos Aires Calcutta Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Florence Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Paris São Paulo Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw and associated companies in Berlin Ibadan Copyright © 2000 by Bart D. Ehrman Published by Oxford University Press, Inc. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 http://www.oup-usa.org 1-800-334-4249 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ehrman, Bart D. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings / Bart D. Ehrman. — 2nd ed. p.cm. Includes biographical references and index. ISBN 0-19-512639-4 (pbk. : alk paper) 1. Bible. N.T.—Introductions I. Title BS2330.2.E36 2000 255.6’7—dc21 99–22360 CIP Printing (last digit): 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 1958_efm1 4/24/00 3:04 PM Page iv To David R. Adams 1958_efm1 4/24/00 3:04 PM Page v vi BRIEF TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 What Is the New Testament? The Early Christians and Their Literature . . . . . .1 Chapter 2 The World of Early Christian Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 Chapter 3 The Traditions of Jesus in Their Greco-Roman Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 Chapter 4 The Christian Gospels: A Literary and Historical Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . .55 Chapter 5 Jesus, the Suffering Son of God: The Gospel according to Mark . . . . . . . . . . .60 Chapter 6 The Synoptic Problem and Its Significance for Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . .76 Chapter 7 Jesus, the Jewish Messiah: The Gospel according to Matthew . . . . . . . . . . . . .84 Chapter 8 Jesus, the Savior of the World: The Gospel according to Luke . . . . . . . . . . . .103 Chapter 9 Luke’s Second Volume: The Acts of the Apostles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122 Chapter 10 Jesus, the Man Sent from Heaven: The Gospel according to John . . . . . . . . .141 Chapter 11 From John’s Jesus to the Gnostic Christ: The Johannine Epistles and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162 Chapter 12 Jesus from Different Perspectives: Other Gospels in Early Christianity . . . . . .179 Chapter 13 The Historical Jesus: Sources, Problems, and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194 Chapter 14 Excurus: The Historian and the Problem of Miracle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208 Chapter 15 Jesus in Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213 Chapter 16 Jesus, the Apocalyptic Prophet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229 Chapter 17 From Jesus to the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252 Chapter 18 Paul the Apostle: The Man and His Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260 Chapter 19 Paul and His Apostolic Mission: 1 Thessalonians as a Test Case . . . . . . . . . .276 Chapter 20 Paul and the Crises of His Churches: 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, and Philemon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290 Chapter 21 The Gospel according to Paul: The Letter to the Romans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319 Chapter 22 Does the Tradition Miscarry? Paul in Relation to Jesus, James, Thecla, and Theudas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332 Chapter 23 In the Wake of the Apostle: The Deutero-Pauline and Pastoral Epistles . . . .341 Chapter 24 From Paul’s Female Colleagues to the Pastor’s Intimidated Women: The Oppression of Women in Early Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .363 Chapter 25 Christians and Jews: Hebrews, Barnabas, and Later Anti-Jewish Literature . .375 Chapter 26 Christians and Pagans: 1 Peter, the Letters of Ignatius, the Martyrdom of Polycarp, and Later Apologetic Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . .392 Chapter 27 Christians and Christians: James, the Didache, Polycarp, 1 Clement, Jude, and 2 Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410 Chapter 28 Christians and the Cosmos: The Revelation of John, The Shepherd of Hermas, and the Apocalypse of Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425 Chapter 29 Epilogue: Do We Have the Original New Testament? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .442 Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .451 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461 1958_efm1 4/24/00 3:04 PM Page vi vii CONTENTS Maps, Timelines, and Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xviii Preface to the Second Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xix Preface to the First Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxi Notes on Suggestions for Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxiii Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxv Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xxvii Chapter 1 What Is the New Testament? The Early Christians and Their Literature . . .1 Box 1.1 The Canon of Scripture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 • The Diversity of Early Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 Box 1.2 The Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . .4 • The New Testament Canon of Scripture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 Box 1.3 The Common Era and Before the Common Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 Box 1.4 The Layout of the New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 • Summary and Implications for our Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 • Some Additional Reflections: The Historian and the Believer . . . . . . . . . . .13 Chapter 2 The World of Early Christian Traditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 • The Problem of Beginnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16 • One Remarkable Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 Box 2.1 Pagan and Gentile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 Box 2.2 The Greco-Roman World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 • The Environment of the New Testament: Religions in the Greco-Roman World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 Box 2.3 Divine Rulers as Savior Gods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Box 2.4 The Roman Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 Box 2.5 Christianity as a Mystery Cult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 • Judaism as a Greco-Roman Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 Box 2.6 Other Jewish Miracle-Working Sons of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40 Chapter 3 The Traditions of Jesus in Their Greco-Roman Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 • Oral Traditions behind the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43 Box 3.1 Orality and Literacy in the Ancient World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 1958_efm1 4/24/00 3:04 PM Page vii viii CONTENTS Box 3.2 Differences between Mark and John on the Time of Jesus’ Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51 • Some Additional Reflections: The Authors of the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . .52 Chapter 4 The Christian Gospels: A Literary and Historical Introduction . . . . . . . . .55 • The Question of Genre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 • Biography as a Greco-Roman Genre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56 Box 4.1 Plutarch on Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57 • The Gospels as Ancient Biographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58 Chapter 5 Jesus, the Suffering Son of God: The Gospel according to Mark . . . . . . . .60 • The Beginning of the Gospel: Jesus the Messiah, the Son of God Who Fulfills the Scripture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60 Box 5.1 The Jewish Messiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61 • Jesus the Authoritative Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 • Jesus the Opposed Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 Box 5.2 Jewish Scribes, Pharisees, Herodians, Sadducees, and Chief Priests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64 • Jesus the Misunderstood Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 • Jesus the Acknowledged Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 Box 5.3 The Messianic Secret in Mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68 • Jesus the Suffering Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69 Box 5.4 Son of God and Son of Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70 • Jesus the Crucified Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71 Box 5.5 The Charge of Blasphemy according to Mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71 • Jesus the Vindicated Son of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72 • Conclusion: Mark and His Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74 Chapter 6 The Synoptic Problem and Its Significance for Interpretation . . . . . . . . . .76 • Methods for Studying the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76 • The Synoptic Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76 1958_efm1 4/24/00 3:04 PM Page viii CONTENTS ix Box 6.1 Ironing Out the Problems: One Potential Difficulty in Mark’s Account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80 Box 6.2 The Contents of Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 • The Methodological Significance of the Four-source Hypothesis . . . . . . . . .82 Chapter 7 Jesus, the Jewish Messiah: The Gospel according to Matthew . . . . . . . . . .84 • The Importance of Beginnings: Jesus the Jewish Messiah in Fulfillment of the Jewish Scriptures . . . . . . . . .85 Box 7.1 Matthew’s Scheme of Fourteen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87 Box 7.2 The Women in Matthew’s Genealogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89 • Jesus and His Forerunner from Matthew’s Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90 • The Portrayal of Jesus in Matthew: The Sermon on the Mount as a Springboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92 Box 7.3 The Golden Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95 • Jesus and the Jewish Cultic Practices Prescribed by the Law . . . . . . . . . . . . .96 • Jesus Rejected by the Jewish Leaders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97 Box 7.4 Gentiles in Matthew’s Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98 • Matthew and His Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101 Box 7.5 Was Matthew a Jew? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101 Chapter 8 Jesus, the Savior of the World: The Gospel according to Luke . . . . . . . .103 • The Comparative Method and the Gospel of Luke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103 • A Comparative Overview of the Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105 • The Preface to Luke’s Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105 Box 8.1 Apologetic Literature in Early Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106 • Luke’s Birth Narrative in Comparative Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108 Box 8.2 Historical Problems with Luke’s Birth Narrative . . . . . . . . . . . .109 Box 8.3 The Virgin Birth in Matthew and Luke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110 • From Jew to Gentile: Luke’s Portrayal of Jesus the Rejected Prophet . . . . .112 • Luke’s Distinctive Emphases throughout His Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114 Box 8.4 Jesus’ Bloody Sweat in Luke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115 Box 8.5 Jesus as a Righteous Martyr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116 Box 8.6 The Institution of the Lord’s Supper in Luke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .119 • Conclusion: Luke in Comparative Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120 1958_efm1 4/24/00 3:04 PM Page ix x CONTENTS Chapter 9 Luke’s Second Volume: The Acts of the Apostles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122 • The Genre of Acts and Its Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122 Box 9.1 The Book of Acts: An Ancient Novel? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124 • The Thematic Approach to Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124 • From Gospel to Acts: The Opening Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125 Box 9.2 Luke’s Mysterious Two Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127 • Luke’s Artistry as a Storyteller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128 • Themes in the Speeches in Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129 Box 9.3 The Death of Judas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130 Box 9.4 Christianity before Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136 • In Sum: Prominent Themes of Luke-Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137 • The Author of Luke-Acts and His Audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137 Chapter 10 Jesus, the Man Sent from Heaven: The Gospel according to John . . . . . .141 • The Gospel of John from a Literary-Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . .142 Box 10.1 Jesus’ Signs in the Fourth Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143 Box 10.2 “The Jews” in the Fourth Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144 • The Gospel of John from a Thematic Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144 • The Gospel of John from a Comparative Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145 Box 10.3 Signs and Faith in the Fourth Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148 Box 10.4 Jesus and the “I Am” Sayings in John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149 • The Gospel of John from a Redactional Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149 • The Socio-Historical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153 Box 10.5 The Death of the Beloved Disciple in the Johannine Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154 • The Gospel of John from a Socio-Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155 Box 10.6 John’s De-Apocalypticized Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160 • The Author of the Fourth Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160 Chapter 11 From John’s Jesus to the Gnostic Christ: The Johannine Epistles and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162 • The Questions of Genre and Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162 Box 11.1 A Letter from Greco-Roman Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163 1958_efm1 4/24/00 3:04 PM Page x CONTENTS xi • The New Testament Epistolary Literature and the Contextual Method . . .164 Box 11.2 The Gospel and Epistles of John: Some Thematic Similarities .165 • The Johannine Epistles from a Contextual Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166 • Reflections on the Contextual Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168 • Beyond the Johannine Community: The Rise of Christian Gnosticism . . .170 Box 11.3 House Churches in Early Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170 Box 11.4 How Do You Know a Gnostic When You See One? . . . . . . . . .173 Box 11.5 Gnostics and the Jewish Scriptures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174 • Gnostics and the Johannine Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177 Chapter 12 Jesus from Different Perspectives: Other Gospels in Early Christianity . .179 • Narrative Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180 Box 12.1 The Gospel of the Ebionites and Early Gospel Harmonies . . . .181 • Sayings Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185 Box 12.2 Judas Thomas as Jesus’ Twin Brother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186 Box 12.3 The Older Sayings of the Gospel of Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189 • Infancy Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .190 • Conclusion: The Other Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192 Chapter 13 The Historical Jesus: Sources, Problems, and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194 • Problems with Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194 • Non-Christian Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195 Box 13.1 Christianity as a Superstition in the Roman World . . . . . . . . .196 Box 13.2 The Testimony of Flavius Josephus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198 • Christian Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198 • Using Our Sources: Some of the Basic Rules of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201 • Specific Criteria and Their Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202 Box 13.3 Aramaisms as a Criterion of Authenticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203 • Conclusion: Reconstructing the Life of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207 Chapter 14 Excursus: The Historian and the Problem of Miracle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208 • Miracles in the Modern World and in Antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208 • The Historian and Historical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210 1958_efm1 4/24/00 3:04 PM Page xi xii CONTENTS Chapter 15 Jesus in Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213 • Political Crises in Palestine and Their Ramifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213 • The Formation of Jewish Sects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215 Box 15.1 Divine Revelation in the Dead Sea Scrolls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219 • Popular Modes of Resistance to Oppression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222 • An Ideology of Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225 Box 15.2 Prophecy and Apocalypticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227 • Jesus in His Apocalyptic Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228 Chapter 16 Jesus, the Apocalyptic Prophet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229 • Considering the Rules of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229 • Considering the Specific Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230 • The Beginning and End as Keys to the Middle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232 • The Apocalyptic Deeds of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233 Box 16.1 Explaining Away the Apocalyptic Traditions: Seeking the Lost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234 Box 16.2 Explaining Away the Apocalyptic Traditions: Setting a Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235 Box 16.3 Was Jesus a Cynic Philosopher? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236 Box 16.4 The Temple Incident as an Enacted Parable . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237 • The Apocalyptic Teachings of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241 Box 16.5 The Cosmic Deliverer of Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244 Box 16.6 Jesus and “Family Values” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246 • The Apocalyptic Death of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247 Box 16.7 Jesus and Judas, the Betrayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249 Chapter 17 From Jesus to the Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252 • The Beginning of Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252 • Jesus’ Resurrection from an Apocalyptic Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .253 Box 17.1 Jesus, the Messiah, and the Resurrection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .254 • Jesus’ Death, according to the Scriptures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255 • The Emergence of Different Understandings of Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .256 1958_efm1 4/24/00 3:04 PM Page xii CONTENTS xiii Box 17.2 Vicarious Suffering in Jewish Martyrologies and Other Greco-Roman Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257 Chapter 18 Paul the Apostle: The Man and His Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260 • The Study of Paul: Methodological Difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261 Box 18.1 The Pauline Corpus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262 Box 18.2 Other Sources for the Life of Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265 • The Life of Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266 Box 18.3 Paul on the Road to Damascus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269 Chapter 19 Paul and His Apostolic Mission: 1 Thessalonians as a Test Case . . . . . . .276 • The Founding of the Church in Thessalonica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276 • The Beginnings of the Thessalonian Church: A Socio-Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282 Box 19.1 Rules for a Private Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283 • The Church at Thessalonica after Paul’s Departure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284 Box 19.2 Charges against the Christians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287 Box 19.3 The Thessalonians’ Perplexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .288 • Conclusion: Paul the Apostle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .288 Chapter 20 Paul and the Crises of His Churches: 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, and Philemon . . . . . . . . . . .290 • 1 Corinthians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290 Box 20.1 Possibilities of Existence in the Afterlife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296 • 2 Corinthians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299 Box 20.2 The Partitioning of 2 Corinthians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .301 • Galatians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303 Box 20.3 The Logic of the Opponents’ Position in Galatia . . . . . . . . . . .306 Box 20.4 Cephas and Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307 • Philippians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .311 Box 20.5 The Christ Hymn of Philippians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314 Box 20.6 Was Paul Contemplating Suicide? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315 • Philemon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316 1958_efm1 4/24/00 3:04 PM Page xiii xiv CONTENTS Chapter 21 The Gospel according to Paul: The Letter to the Romans . . . . . . . . . . . .319 • The Occasion and Purpose of the Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319 Box 21.1 The Beginnings of the Roman Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320 • The Theme of the Epistle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .321 Box 21.2 Paul’s Gospel to the Romans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323 • Pauline Models for Salvation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324 Box 21.3 Two Paths of Salvation in Paul? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325 Box 21.4 Judicial and Participationist Models of Salvation in Paul . . . . .328 • The Flow of Paul’s Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328 Box 21.5 Other Models of Salvation in Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330 • Conclusion: Paul and the Romans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331 Chapter 22 Does the Tradition Miscarry? Paul in Relation to Jesus, James, Thecla, and Theudas . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332 • Paul in Relation to What Came Before . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332 Box 22.1 Jesus and Paul: Some of the Similarities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335 Box 22.2 Jesus and Paul: Some of the Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336 • Paul in Relation to What Came After . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336 • Conclusion: Pauline Christianities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340 Chapter 23 In the Wake of the Apostle: The Deutero-Pauline and Pastoral Epistles .341 • Pseudonymity in the Ancient World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341 Box 23.1 Paul’s Third Letter to the Corinthians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343 • The Deutero-Pauline Epistles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344 Box 23.2 The Resurrection of Believers in Paul and Colossians . . . . . . .349 Box 23.3 The “Household Rules” in Colossians and Ephesians . . . . . . . .350 Box 23.4 The Vocabulary of Salvation in Paul and Ephesians . . . . . . . . .352 • The Pastoral Epistles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354 • The Historical Situation and Authorship of the Pastoral Epistles . . . . . . . .357 Box 23.5 Church Hierarchy in Ignatius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .361 • Conclusion: The Post-Pauline Pastoral Epistles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .361 1958_efm1 4/24/00 3:04 PM Page xiv

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