The Moon

534 Pages·1969·40.655 MB·English

by  Zdeněk Kopal (auth.)

THE MOON
Photograph of extended plains of the lunar Mare Tranquillitatis, showing crater Cauchy in between
a shallow rille and a low cleft - with a typical dome near the centre of the field of view - taken by
U.S. Astronaut James A. Lovell, Jf. from Apollo 8 spacecraft on 24 December 1968 in orbit around
the Moon (reproduced by courtesy of NASA). Compare this view with a terrestrial photograph of
the same region, as reproduced on Figure 16.20 on p. 278 in the text.
ZDENEK KOPAL
Department of Astronomy, University of Manchester
THE MOON
D. REIDEL PUBLISHING COMPANY
DORDRECHT-HOLLAND
The first edition of this work has been published in 1966 under the title
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE MOON
ISBN-13: 978-94-010-3410-4 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-010-3408-1
DOl: 10.1007/978-94-010-3408-1
© 1969. D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm,
or any means, without written permission from the publisher
To the Memory of my Father
PROFESSOR JOSEF KOPAL
(1883-1966)
PREFACE
A favourable reception of the first edition of this book - due no doubt to the nature
of its subject - which went out of print in 2 years, gave its author a welcome oppor
tunity to update at present its contents. This was all the more necessary, as seldom
in the annals of science has our knowledge of the physics and astronomy of the Moon
made greater progress than during this time. The real heroes of this advance have,
of course, been the spacecraft - 33 of which have now been sent out since 1959 to
reconnoiter our satellite at a close range. The hard-landers among them just about
delivered their message by the time when the first edition of this book went to the
press; but it was the soft-landers and orbiters, which followed in their wake between
1966-67, that became really the principal contributors to lunar research. By now
their programmes have likewise been completed; so that it may be both timely and
opportune to take stock of the present state of our subject now - on the eve of the
next stage of lunar exploration by manned landings on the surface of our satellite -
which can be expected to take place in the very near future. *
The aim of the second edition of this book will be to provide the requisite infor
mation, brought up to date in an organized manner. Its form remains essentially
similar to that of the first edition. However, the influx of new knowledge between
1966-68 necessitated that Chapters 16-17 and 22-24 be completely rewritten, as well
as provided with new illustrations; and shorter additions incorporating recent work
were interspersed throughout the whole book. The Bibliographical Notes accompa
nying each Part were likewise brought up to date as of the summer 1968. As a result,
the size of this volume had to be increased somewhat if it was to fulfill its purpose
of accompanying the reader to the front lines of current research. However, in
response to a general demand for a simplified version of the same material, a parallel
edition is to appear shortly in abridged form, in which the methodological or bibli
ographical material - of primary interest for the working scholar - will be very
largely omitted; and attention focused on a survey of the results of principal interest
for a more general reader.
If, however, the reader expects that recent experimental exploits of our spacecraft
have solved all lunar problems outlined in the first edition, he is bound to be dis
appointed. For not only - as everywhere in science - one solved problem gives rise
usually to many new ones; but it has also become evident that increasing arrays of
facts which became available to us in the past 2 years do not often admit of simple
... Succesfully accomplished 20 July 1969 (see postscript).
vm
THE MOON
explanation. In so far as the intimacy of our acquaintance with the lunar surface is
concerned, hard-landing spacecraft (Rangers 7-9) of1964-65 have increased thousand
fold the spatial resolution previously attainable with the aid of telescopes from the
distance of the Earth; and the soft-landers of 1966-68 have gained us a further
resolution factor of a thousand. But, in spite of these giant strides, the meaning of new
facts seems sometimes to possess an elusive ability of escaping from our out
stretched hands like a mirage.
It was aptly remarked, in this connection, by Thomas Gold that only too many
investigators of the Moon have been inclined to seek in the new evidence - which
spacecraft have so suddenly thrust upon us - but confirmations of their preconceived
opinions. The range between too dogmatic an approach on one side, and reluctance
to draw conclusions from the facts on the other, is often quite wide; and the extent
to which the present writer may have succeeded in threading the middle road will be
for future readers to judge.
The first edition of this book was largely written while its author was on a sabbatical
leave from the University of Manchester at the Boeing Scientific Research Labora
tories in Seattle, U.S.A.; and the preparation of this second edition has been carried
out at the same institution in the summer of 1968. May the writer use this opportunity
to reiterate his sincere appreciation to his friends Guilbert L. Hollingsworth, Director
of the Boeing Laboratories; Burton H. Colvin, Head of Mathematics Research; and
John C. Noyes, Head of Geo-Astrophysics Research, of their hospitality extended to
him at all times, and for placing all facilities of their laboratories so generously at the
disposal of his work. Miss Linda Baqui (having changed her name) was no longer
available for the typing of the new manuscript; but this task was accomplished with
equal skill by Miss Janet Sutherland.
The writer wishes, furthermore, to express his deep indebtedness to all colleagues
at the Space Division of the Boeing Company in Kent - in particular, to Messrs.
John H. Lincoln, Albert J. McDonald, and Martin C. Stickels - who facilitated his
access to the original photographic data secured by the Lunar Orbiters between 1966
and 1968, many of which are reproduced in this book; and to his friends at the NASA
Headquarters in Washington for similar access to the data secured by the Surveyors.
The actual production of the photographic prints for the press was expertly ac
complished by Mr. Don Fenton of the Boeing Scientific Research Laboratories in
Seattle, and Mr. Charlie Lowe of the Department of Astronomy, University of
Manchester.
The skeleton maps of the Moon which accompany this volume were prepared
with unrivalled skill and knowledge by Ing. Antonin Riikl of Prague, Czechoslovakia.
The foldout map of the lunar front side is identical with the one which accompanied
already the first edition of the book; but the corresponding map of the far side, based
largely on the Orbiter photographs, is so far unique of its kind, and constitutes an
original and significant contribution to lunar cartography.
Last, but not least, the present writer wishes to express his thanks and appreciation
to his publisher, Mr. Anton Reidel of D. Reidel Publishing Company in Dordrecht,
PREFACE IX
as well as to his able assistant and collaborator, Miss N. M. van der Heijden, for
their cooperation and care which they bestowed on the production of this volume;
while, at Manchester, the unfailing assistance of Miss Ellen B. Finlay has been - as
ever - invaluable.
ZDENEK KOPAL
Boeing Scientific Research Laboratories,
Seattle, Wash., U.S.A.
August, 1968
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE VII
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION XIII
PART ONE
MOTION OF THE MOON AND DYNAMICS OF THE
EARTH-MOON SYSTEM
Chapter 1. Basic Facts: Distance, Size, and Mass 3
Chapter 2. The Motion of the Moon in Space 9
Chapter 3. Rotation of the Moon; Optical Librations 16
Chapter 4. Motion of the Moon about its Center of Gravity; Physical
Librations 24
Chapter 5. Photometric Consequences of the Moon's Motion: Phases and
Eclipses 44
Chapter 6. Dynamics of the Earth-Moon System 55
Bibliographical Notes 69
PART TWO
INTERNAL CONSTITUTION OF THE LUNAR GLOBE
Introduction 75
Chapter 7. Hydrostatic Equilibrium and its Limitations 77
Chapter 8. Thermal History of the Moon 91
Chapter 9. Stress History of the Moon 110
Chapter 10. Possible Convection in the Lunar Interior 133
Chapter 11. Chemical Composition of the Moon 151
Chapter 12. Exosphere of the Moon 161
Bibliographical Notes 171
XII THE MOON
PART THREE
TOPOGRAPHY OF THE MOON
Introduction 177
Chapter 13. Global Form of the Moon and its Gravitational Field 178
Chapter 14. Relative Coordinates on the Moon and their Determination 205
Chapter 15. Mapping of the Moon 225
Chapter 16. Morphology of the Lunar Surface 258
Chapter 17. Origin of the Lunar Formations 292
Chapter 18. Lunar Surface as an Impact Counter, and its Stratigraphy 332
Bibliographical Notes 348
PART FOUR
RADIATION OF THE MOON
Introduction 355
Chapter 19. Photometry of Scattered Moonlight 357
Chapter 20. Thermal Emission of the Lunar Surface 371
Chapter 21. Electromagnetic Properties of the Lunar Surface 400
Chapter 22. Luminescence of the Lunar Surface 423
Chapter 23. Structure of the Lunar Surface 438
Chapter 24. Large-Scale Features of the Lunar Surface 461
Bibliographical Notes 484
POSTSCRIPT 491
REFERENCES 493
INDEX OF NAMES 518