The Kaleidoscope of Adult Second Language Learning - AMEP

156 Pages·2008·0.72 MB·English

02 Kaleidoscope Cover 7/10/08 10:42 AM Page 1
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affected their learning.
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of the learners, their approaches to teaching them,
and their ideas and views of the learning process.
A further perspective emerged from the researchers
who interviewed the learners and the teachers,
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observed the classes and analysed the data.
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The kaleidoscope of adult second language
learning: Learner, teacher and researcher
perspectives
Gillian Wigglesworth
Editor
Research Collection 2
Contents
Figures v
Published by the
National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research Tables v
Macquarie University, Sydney NSW 2109
Appendices vi
for the AMEPResearch Centre
The kaleidoscope of adult second language learning: learner, Notes vii
teacher and researcher perspectives.
Bibliography.
ISBN 1 86408 856 7.
Section 1: Influences on learning 1
1. English language – Study and teaching – Foreign speakers. 2. Language and languages –
Study and teaching – Foreign speakers. I. Wigglesworth, Gillian. II. National Centre for Chapter 1: Revolving the kaleidoscope: The role of cultural,
English Language Teaching and Research (Australia). III. Title. (Series : Research collection
social, educational and individual factors in
(Macquarie University. National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research); 2).
language learning 3
428.2407
Gillian Wigglesworth
Chapter 2: Changing clients in the AMEP at the turn of
the 21st century 19
Denise E Murray
©Macquarie University 2003 Chapter 3: Oracy is more than the absence of literacy:
The AMEP Research Centre is a consortium of the National Centre for English Language Changing learner groups in ESL classrooms
Teaching and Research (NCELTR) at Macquarie University in Sydney, and the National
in highly literate societies 29
Institute for Education at La Trobe University in Melbourne. The Research Centre was
Howard Nicholas and Alan Williams
established in January 2000 and is funded by the Commonwealth Department of Immigration
and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs.
Chapter 4: The influence of prior learning 53
Copyright Lynda Yates
This book is sold subject to the conditions that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be
lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior consent in any
form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar
condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser. Section 2: Perceptions of learning and teaching 79
All rights reserved. No parts of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
Chapter 5: The pieces of the pattern: Learner backgrounds
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
and profiles 81
recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.
Alan Williams and Lynda Yates
Project Manager: Louise Melov
Production Supervisor: Kris Clarke
Chapter 6: Language learning strategies 107
Design and DTP: Helen Lavery
Helen Lunt
Cover design: Helen Lavery
Printed by: dbooks, Australia
iii
Chapter 7: Second language development: Extending, List of figures, tables and appendices
elaborating and refining English speech 135
Howard Nicholas and Gillian Wigglesworth
Figures
Chapter 8: Turning the kaleidoscope: Perceptions of
Figure 1 The data collection process 10
learning and teaching in the AMEP 183
Figure 2 Sample work sheet 281
Lynda Yates and Alan Williams
Chapter 9: Bilingual initiatives in the ESL classroom 221 Tables
Gillian Wigglesworth
Table 1 Summary of learner participants 12
Table 2 Summary of interview data 13
Section 3: Classroom case studies 249 Table 3 Coding categories for interview data 14
Table 4 Coding categories for language elicitation data 14
Chapter 10: Problem or opportunity? Providing for
Table 5 Offshore resettlement program, grants by region,
preliterate learners in the AMEP 251
1998–99 to 2001–02 21
Margaret Gunn
Table 6 Percentage of clients in the AMEP 1999–2003 by country of origin 22
Chapter 11: Special focus writing class for Horn of Africa
Table 7 Percentage of elderly Chinese clients in the AMEP 1999–2003 22
and other AMEP students with similar
Table 8 State with the highest percentage of clients in the AMEP Term 2,
writing needs 273
2003 by country of origin 23
Karen Slikas Barber
Table 9 Arrivals in skilled migration stream 2001–02 by region 23
Table 10 Percentage of AMEP skill stream clients 1999–2003
by country of origin 24
Section 4: Final reflections 289
Table 11 AMEP clients 2001–02 by migration category 25
Chapter 12: Reflections on the patterns from
Table 12 Offshore Humanitarian Program – Regional breakdown for 2001–02
the kaleidoscope 291
(actual grants) and 2002–03 (notional allocations) 25
Gillian Wigglesworth and Howard Nicholas
Table 13 Interrelationships between cultural and cohesive contrasts:
Notes on contributors 299 Arabic and English 47
Table 14 Summary of learner backgrounds 82
Table 15 Percentage of extended clauses used by Horn of Africa learners 159
Table 16 Degree of refinement for learners from Horn of Africa 161
Table 17 Extension versus refinement 162
Table 18 Percentage of extended clauses used by Iraqi learners 163
Table 19 Degree of refinement for learners from Iraq 164
iv v
List of figures, tables and appendices
Notes
Transcription conventions
Table 20 Extension versus refinement for Iraqi learners 164 The following conventions are used in transcriptions of interviews with learners
and teachers:
Table 21 Percentage of extended clauses used by Chinese learners 166
Table 22 Degree of refinement for learners from China 166 Italic print: The interviewer’s words
Table 23 Extension versus refinement for Chinese learners 167 Roman print: 1 The Teacher’s words
Table 24 Number of languages spoken/written by project participants 261 2 An interpreter glossing the learner’s L1 reply or
comment in English, or explaining what the learner
Table 25 Extent of previous literacy and primary schooling: Horn of Africa 262
has said
Table 26 Age at which project participants attended school 262
Bold print: The learner speaking in English
… A pause by the speaker
Appendices
[…] A short or lengthy section of the transcript has been
Appendix 1 Classification and definition of learning strategies 130 omitted
Appendix 2 Horn of Africa learners’ use of extended clauses 171 [ ] The word provided is what was probably said, but it is
Appendix 3 Multi-constituent clauses as a measure of refinement not clearly audible on the tape
for Horn of Africa learners 173 XXXX A word or phrase is unintelligible
Appendix 4 Iraqi learners’ use of extended clauses 175 { } Contextual notes
Appendix 5 Multi-constituent clauses as a measure of refinement
Note: Potentially identifying information (for example, first language, names of
for Iraqi learners 176
suburbs) has been removed from the transcripts.
Appendix 6 Chinese learners’ use of extended clauses 178
Appendix 7 Multi-constituent clauses as a measure of refinement Example numbering
for Chinese learners 179 All examples are numbered, with the pseudonym of the interviewee, and the
Appendix 8 Examples of model texts 287 week number. Week numbers refer to the week in which the interview took
place, as follows:
Term 4, 2001 Week 1 Term 2, 2002 Week 20
Week 4 Week 23
Week 8 Week 27
Term 1, 2002 Week 12 Term 3, 2002 Week 32
Week 16 Week 35
vi vii
Section 1: Influences on learning
Chapter 1: Rotating the kaleidoscope: The role
of cultural, social, educational and
individual factors in language learning
Gillian Wigglesworth
For migrants1 arriving in a new country, whether they have come as a result of
economic imperatives, as a lifestyle choice, because they are refugees fleeing
persecution, or because they are coming to be reunited with relatives, there are
many challenges to face. For those who come from a different language back-
ground, one of the most important of these challenges for achieving their
educational, professional and settlement aims is likely to be that of learning the
language of the host community.
Yet, for every learner, the challenge of learning the language is likely to be a very
different experience – for some it will be easier, for others more difficult. For
teachers, too, experiences will vary considerably. Each class will present new
challenges, different students, and new considerations, potentially calling for fresh
approaches. Thus, for both the learner and the teacher, the classroom brings
together a vast array of different factors that combine in various ways to influence
learning – creating what we have termed the kaleidoscope of language learning.
The background and motivation for the study
In Australia, the Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP) is a national program
that provides English language classes to various categories of migrants who
have achieved permanent resident status. The program is free for all learners
who have not yet attained a ‘functional’ level2of English language learning, and
who meet certain selection criteria. The program allows each migrant to receive
up to 510 hours of English language tuition through a nationally accredited
program offered in centres throughout urban and rural Australia.
For curriculum planners and teachers alike, one of the most pervasively chal-
lenging features of this program has been the diversity of learners who attend
classes (see Burns and Hood 1997, for further discussion of this issue), and more
recently, the rapidly changing nature of the various groups of migrants. Learners
come from widely different cultural and linguistic backgrounds, so one class
may include learners from every continent and a wide variety of countries. Not
3
Chapter 1 Rotating the kaleidoscope: The role of cultural, social, educational
and individual factors in language learning
only do teachers need to take into account the different linguistic traditions of language from a variety of perspectives. The major objective of the study was to
their learners, but they may, at the same time, have to manage a class in which investigate learning issues in relation to particular groups of learners who had
learners range in educational background from none to college-level education, recently accessed the AMEP program – those groups of learners who repre-
and in previous occupation from manual worker to university academic. Some sented the more recent migrants to Australia, and with whom teachers had little
learners may have had experiences of torture and trauma, and have experienced familiarity in terms of background, learning styles etc. More specifically, we
dramatic family disruption. In addition to these life experiences, and demo- wanted to document the cultural and individual characteristics that influenced
graphic and educational variables, teachers have to be able to work successfully the language learning of individuals from these groups, and we wanted to do
with learners who may have quite different learning styles. Some prefer one this through detailed longitudinal studies. Thus the major aims of this study
approach to learning over another, some will acquire language and move through were to try and tease out how the various cultural and individual influences
the different stages more quickly than others, and learners will vary in how easy, learners experience affect their language learning efforts, in order to identify a
or how interesting or relevant, they find the same aspects of language learning. basis for articulating the kinds of strategies teachers could introduce into the
Furthermore, teachers and learners both bring to the learning activity their own classroom to make language learning easier, and to provide insights into the
personalities, foibles, interests, preconceptions, values and learning, and all of appropriateness of the current assessment tools available within the context of
these may interact in myriad ways with those of the other participants in the the Adult Migrant English Program.
classroom. Thus while we tend to think of the language classroom as an envi-
Although in this project we identified learners from specific backgrounds for
ronment with a distinctive and shared purpose, it is, in reality, a microcosm of
our case studies, we were under no illusions that we were looking for group
the broader society in which we live, with individuals who may be more or less
similarities. Rather, we were interested in looking at each of these learners as an
assertive, more or less enthusiastic, and with more or less natural ability to learn
individual, with a view to determining what factors might impact upon, and
a language, and more or less ability to cooperate with one another.
influence, each individual learner and thus their learning outcomes. The different
This volume represents an exploration of some of the factors that impact upon
kinds of factors which were likely to influence their learning fell into two main
learners in the language-learning situation. We examine their perceptions, their
groups: cultural influences and individual influences.
participation and roles in the classroom, and how their background, previous
educational experiences and family situations influence their learning. In addition Human behaviour can be influenced by both individual, or genetic influences,3
to the voices of the learners, we hear the voices of the teachers – their perceptions and environmental factors. We are not concerned here with the precise balance
of the learners, their approaches to teaching them, and their ideas and views of between these two types of influence and do not intend to revisit the nature/nurture
the learning process. Because this investigation was undertaken as a research debate. However, we wanted to explore the environmental influences across a
study, we hear also the voices of the researchers who interviewed the learners and range of different variables and to include the influence of parents and/or other
the teachers, who observed the classes, and who analysed the substantial amount family members or caretakers and previous cultural experiences, as well as the
of data which resulted from the study. We have attempted in this book to pull ways that the learners themselves engage with and build on those cultural and
together all of these perspectives and to examine what is, essentially, a kaleido- social experiences, and the effect of prior educational and learning experiences.
scope of factors which impact upon the learners and their learning. Through Ross (2000) argues the latter is the most consistent predictor of successful achieve-
what was, in the data-gathering phase, a series of detailed case studies, we have ment in the type of competency-based curriculum which has been adopted by
attempted to unravel some of the mysteries of language learning, and to unpack the Adult Migrant English Program.
what it is that contributes to an individual’s approach to learning a language.
Cultural influences incorporate a range of different experiences, all of which have
The primary motivation for this study was to ensure a major focus on the learners; a role to play in the approach to learning that learners take in any new learning
we wanted to access their views, perceptions, ideas and motivations, and we situation, including that of learning the language of the host community. One of
wanted to investigate how they learned English as a second or subsequent these is interactive style, which is not only a matter of individual differences in
4 5
Chapter 1 Rotating the kaleidoscope: The role of cultural, social, educational
and individual factors in language learning
personality, but also a result of cultural and linguistic background. Thus factors language learning literature than have cultural factors, so that we are familiar
such as degrees of directness, persuasiveness, reticence etc, may vary among with the idea that the learner brings to the process certain attributes, such as
people from different cultural backgrounds according to the norms with which personality, age and aptitude, which may affect learning. Other factors relate to
they have become familiar. A second factor, which may be critical to how a the manner in which the learner may approach and conceptualise the learning
learner learns, relates to the extent to which earlier educational experiences have process, and these include the cognitive style of the learner, the motivations
been available, and accessible. Socio-historical factors, such as war, family and learners bring to bear on the task, and their attitude towards language learning
inter- or intra-group rivalry and conflict have all too frequently resulted in major in general. In addition to this, learners actively interact with the process of lan-
displacements, which may include years spent in refugee camps, changes of guage learning. Ideally, they bring with them a range of strategies for learning,
country and lifestyle, and traumatic migration experiences. Under these condi- while they remain open to the idea of adopting new strategies and approaches in
tions, access to education may have been at best limited, and at worst, completely their new learning context. We wanted to be able to explore with the learners
unavailable. In addition to this, there may be issues resulting from traumatic their perceptions of their aspirations and motivations in order to examine their
past experiences. In undertaking this study, we were aware that many of the views about their learning, and to consider what effects personality and other
newer migrant groups who study in the AMEP come from refugee backgrounds. factors might have on their learning overall.
Some have little or no prior educational experience, and that educational experi-
The overarching objectives for this project were to enable us to provide a more
ence may have been, in any case, relatively unsuccessful, for example if they had
precise description of the language development of these learners over time as
been part of an oppressed minority group within a different dominant
they progressed through the AMEP; to develop a more precise description of
culture. All of these factors have been shown to impact on the degree of success
how the learners responded to the demands of AMEP classrooms; to develop a
with which learners progress through the AMEP (McPherson 1997), and on the
better understanding of issues related to learner management and how the needs
kinds of support that learners from these backgrounds require (Allender 1998;
of different learners could be accommodated within the same classroom; and to
Seufert 1999).
develop a clearer understanding of how the particular learner communities
For those migrants for whom education has been available, or has even been the approached English as a second language learning, which would allow us to
norm, radically different educational approaches may mean that classroom develop a more comprehensive sense of the most relevant teaching strategies.
experiences during the school years were very different from those on offer in
adult language programs in Australia and other English-speaking countries. Design of the project
Related factors here include different practices of cultural literacy, and the effect
The project consisted of one large individual component which was a series of
of these practices on learning styles, which may not be readily open to the kind of
individual case studies, and two small components which were classroom case
communicative language teaching which is customary in most English-speaking
studies both concerned with the teaching of literacy. In the component designed as
countries today. The effects of both educational background, or lack of it, and
a series of individual case studies, the learners were followed as they progressed
earlier educational experiences, were aspects of learning we wanted to explore
through the AMEP for up to a year. In the first classroom case study, reported
with the learners as we discussed with them their perceptions of learning English
by Gunn (Chapter 10, this volume), preliterate African women participated in a
in Australia. The theoretical considerations of these factors are discussed in more
program specially designed for their needs. In the second, discussed by Barber
detail in Chapters 3 and 4 of this volume: Nicholas and Williams (this volume,
(Chapter 11, this volume), more advanced writers were provided with additional
page 29) explore the implications of different oral and literate traditions for
writing instruction, which introduced a range of strategies to assist them in their
learning, while Yates (this volume, page 53) reflects upon the ways in which
writing development. The research approach adopted in these two classroom
prior learning experiences can influence current learning experiences.
case studies is incorporated into the relevant chapters (Chapters 10 and 11). In
Equally important are the individual factors that learners bring to the activity of the section below we detail the research methodology adopted for the individual
learning. In general these factors have been more broadly explored in the second case studies, the findings from which are reported in Chapters 5 to 9.
6 7
Chapter 1 Rotating the kaleidoscope: The role of cultural, social, educational
and individual factors in language learning
Research methodology language learning outcomes for the learner. The selections that the learner
makes result, in part, from the learner’s affective attributes – in other words who
We framed our objectives around the four key variables, or questions, identified by
the learners are, what they feel and think, and how they react to different situations
Breen (2001: 1), which focus on the learner contribution to the learning process:
and learning environments.
• What the learners contribute to the process (or ‘what are the specific
To address these objectives, we designed a methodology in which a series of case
contributions of the persons doing the learning?’).
studies followed learners over a period of up to 12 months in their progression
• The language data made available to the learners in the communicative
through the English program. The data collection techniques were triangulated
environment in which learning occurs (or ‘under what conditions or
to enhance the validity of the data, and consequently a variety of data collection
circumstances does learning take place?’).
techniques were used. These were:
• The interaction between learners and environment in terms of the situated
• Classroom observation:Learners were observed in the classroom twice per
learning process (or ‘how is the learning done?’).
term for the duration of the study. These allowed observation of the learners’
• The actual outcomes of the learning process (or ‘what is actually learned? interactions within the classroom, general behaviour and learning styles.
What is it that people learn and what constitutes significant learning in
• Learner interviews:Learners were interviewed two to three times per term
these groups?’).
with an interpreter present in order to allow in-depth interviews with the
learners in their first language. These were designed to elicit their own ideas
Methodological approach to the individual case studies
and perceptions about their learning approaches and the classroom
The research design adopted for the individual case studies was intended to
situation. These interviews were taped and subsequently transcribed.
allow us to probe the interrelationships between these four questions. The first
• Language elicitation:Each learner was interviewed three times per term
question is concerned with what the learners themselves bring to the activity of
(usually without an interpreter present) for the purposes of eliciting oral
learning and this reflects the mix of individual influences as well as the environ-
English. These elicitation interviews were taped and transcribed.
mental and/or cultural influences which have contributed to the way learners
approach the learning activity as discussed above. With respect to the second • Teacher diaries: The classroom teacher of each of the learner participants
selected for the study was asked to keep a daily diary in which they made a
question, we planned to document the type of language data made available to
brief entry for each lesson involving the learner-participant, which reported
the learners within the context of the AMEP, and the types of activities in which
any specific events noted in the student’s activities.
they were involved, although there were limits with respect to what we could do
here, as we could not realistically document the language experiences the learners • Program plans, task record sheets and student written work:Teachers kept
had outside of the AMEP situation. The third variable relates to the interaction a week by week record of their program, and of tasks given to students
between the learners and the environment – that is the AMEP – in which the in class (including copies of any handouts and work sheets distributed in
learning is happening. There are numerous factors that may influence this situa- class), and maintained a folder of copies of any written work produced by
tion, which include the approach taken in the classroom, and the personality the learner-participants in their class. Brief pro-formas were provided for
and style of the teacher and other participants in the class. The final variable these activities and to assist teachers with describing the context in which
relates to what the learners actually ended up learning. While this may be in the written work was produced, and to ensure comparability of data
terms of achievements on the assessment system, it may also be less formal collection across different classes.
achievements in terms of their ability to function in society outside of the class- • Teacher interviews:Classroom teachers participated in two short interviews
room. Clearly these factors all interrelate at a number of levels. Breen (2001) each term. These were taped and later transcribed. Diagramatically, the data
argues that it is the contributions by the learner to the learning process, which collection approach can be modelled as follows, demonstrating the circular
are realised in terms of the choices the learner makes, that shape significantly the nature of the data collection, and the inter-related aspects of it:
8 9