The History of Man-Powered Flight

355 Pages·1977·24.959 MB·English

by  D. A. Reay (Auth.)

THE H I S T O RY OF
M A N - P O W E R ED FLIGHT
by
D. A. REAY
International Research & Development Co. L td.,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England
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Copyright© 1977 D.A. Reay
All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
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First edition 1977
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Reay, David Anthony.
Man-powered flight.
Includes index.
1. Human-powered aircraft. I. Title.
TL769.R41977 629.133'3 77-7924
ISBN 0-08-021738-9
In order to make this volume available as economically and as rapidly as possible the
author's typescript has been reproduced in its original form. This method unfortu-
nately has its typographical limitations but it is hoped that they in no way distract
the reader.
Printed in Great Britain by William Clowes & Sons, Limited
London, Beccles and Colchester
The David Reay, who is 34, is a Chartered
Engineer. Born in Northumberland, he
was educated at Giggleswick School,
Author Yorkshire, and Bristol University, where
he graduated in 1965 with a B.Sc. in
Aeronautical Engineering. His interest
in man-powered flight arose during work
at Hawker Siddeley Aviation, Brough,
and he subsequently spent a further year
at Bristol carrying out research into
the aerodynamics of wings when flying
close to the ground, with particular
reference to man-powered aircraft.
He returned to North East England in
1966, joining C.A. Parsons & Co. Ltd.
as a research aerodynamicist. Two years
later he moved to the International Res-
earch & Development Co. Ltd., also in
Newcastle upon Tyne, where he is Energy
Adviser and is active in the fields of
heat transfer and fluid flow. He is an
authority on the subject of heat pipe
technology.
Already established as an author of
technical books, these including Heat
Pipes, written in conjunction with Prof-
essor P.D. Dunn of Reading University,
and Industrial Energy Conservation, both
of which are published by Pergamon Press,
he maintains a strong interest in aviat-
ion, including man-powered flight and
aircraft photography. He is a member of
the Royal Aeronautical Society Man- Pow-
ered Aircraft Group.
His activities extend to include work
on physiology, in particular heat trans-
fer through the skin and the functioning
of sweat glands, a subject not unrelated
to man-powered flight! In collaboration
with staff of the Department of Dermat-
ology at Nijmegen University in The Neth-
erlands, he has contributed a Chapter to
a major dermatological handbook published
by Springer Verlag, Berlin. This section
is also being published as a Monograph on
Sweat Gland Behaviour.
vii
Preface
The idea to write a history of man-powered flight occurred at a time when
my own interest in the subject was widening through activities associated with
the design of a man-powered aircraft within my own company. Books devoted to
man-powered flight are few, and this is the first comprehensive history of the
topic to be published in the English language. I believe it appears at an
appropriate time in the evolution of this form of flight; transition from the
ridiculous to the sublime began in the 1920s, and designs have reached maturity
during the past fifteen years, although a colourful smattering of the ridiculous
still remains.
Serious proponents of man-powered flight are divided as to the direction
future developments should take. Some are striving, I believe quite rightly,
for a form of perfection epitomised by the requirements of the current major
competition, the Kremer Competition, initiated in the United Kingdom, which is
spurned by an equally able and enthusiastic faction who see the activity as a
sport with, initially, more limited objectives.
Because man-powered flight has an almost universal attraction as a human
endeavour yet to be completely fulfilled, the interest in, and appeal of, the
subject is not restricted to experts in the field of aeronautics. This book
is directed at all those with an interest in aviation, laymen and technical men
alike, and, as the development of the science of man-powered flight has progressed
until recently largely on an ad hoc experimental basis, I have been able to
avoid the use of excessive mathematics in my treatment of the subject. The
reader who wants more specialist information will find several complementary
books and papers dealing in depth with the theory of flight related to man-
powered aircraft in particular, and aircraft in general.
I have been very fortunate in obtaining assistance from many constructors
of man-powered aircraft, both past and present, and others associated with
equally important but less dramatic aspects of these aircraft. Such a
comprehensive history would not have been possible without their co-operation.
I am also most grateful to Miss E.C. Pike, former Secretary of the Royal
Aeronautical Society Man-Powered Aircraft Group, Mr. K. Clark, current Secretary
and to Mr. B.S. Shenstone, founder member of the Cranfield Man-Powered Aircraft
Committee, for the loan of photographs and for giving me access to information
collected by them over a period of many years.
David A. Reay
August 1976.
ix
Photo Credits
The copyright of illustrations used in this book belongs to the following
agencies:
Radio Times Hulton Picture Library: Figs. 1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 12, 15, 16,
17, 18, 20, 22, 24, 25, 30, 34, 35.
Science Museum Photographic Library: Figs. 2, 4, 6, 7, 11, 13, 19, 26.
Royal Aeronautical Society: Figs. 33, 40, 44, 124, 164.
Evening Standard (London): Fig. 96.
Keystone Press Agency: Figs. 97, 97, 162.
United Press International: Figs. 90, 94, 95, 139.
Flight International: Figs. 92, 101.
Associated Newspapers: Figs. 118, 119, 120, 140, 142.
Sport & General Press: Figs. 99, 138.
Central Press Photos: Fig. 117.
South Bedfordshire News Agency: Fig. 97.
f f
Punch Magazine: Fig. 145.
Aireview (Japan): Figs. 131, 132, 133, 134, 135.
x
1
Fact
Flight in Early Civilisations
2 Man-Powered Flight
1
Man's desire to fly has persisted throughout his history and complete
fulfilment of his wish has only occurred in the twentieth century. Even today,
romantic associations with flying are still strong, and, as a means of travel,
aircraft have always had an exciting appeal. It is of course to be expected
that in his earliest attempts at flight man should try to imitate the birds.
Certainly, early man could conceive of no other way of flying than that shown
to him by nature, unless it was to harness birds to lift his body into the air.
MYTHOLOGY
Early tales of flights of this kind are mainly confined to the realms of
mythology. Undoubtedly the most popular and widely known mythological flying
escapade is that attributed to Icarus and Daedalus. Legend has it that
Daedalus, an engineer responsible for the layout and construction of the
labyrinth for the Minotaur in Crete, was imprisoned, together with his son
Icarus, by the ruler of Crete, King Minos. This Greek story, reputed to date
from about 3500 B.C., goes on to tell how Daedalus constructed two sets of
wings, using mainly wax and feathers as shown in Fig. 1. The father and son
then strapped the wings to their arms, intending to fly from Crete across the
channel separating it from the mainland. The take-off went well and the flight
was without incident until Icarus, no doubt intoxicated by his new-found
freedom, disregarded his father's warnings and climbed to a considerably
greater altitude. Flying too close to the sun, the wax supporting the
feathers melted, his wings disintegrated, and the unfortunate Icarus plunged
into the sea and was drowned. Daedalus flew on and reached the safety of the
mainland, as illustrated in Fig. 2.
Other branches of Greek mythology refer to winged creatures with a
basically human form. Eos, goddess of the Dawn and Artemis both supported
wings. The personifications of Death, Sleep, Fame, Victory and, appropriately
the Winds, were all shown with similar appendages. The Greek god Hermes was
winged, as was Cupid. Phaethon, the son of the Greek sun-god Helios, was
thought to drive a great winged chariot across the sky. Perseus and Pegasus,
shown in Fig. 3, were also depicted in this manner.
Another early legend, in this instance dealing with the flight of a man
aided by a bird, is illustrated on Babylonian seal cylinders dating from the
period 2500 - 2000 B.C. The legend relates how Etana, the shepherd king was
carried to the aerial palace of the goddess Ishtar by an eagle that he had
befriended. It tells that the reason for his journey was to intercede on
behalf of his capital city, but his flight was brought to an abrupt conclusion
and he fell to earth.
There are many other references to birds helping men to achieve flight.
Some describe how men soared into the air mounted on the backs of birds,
Mythology or Fact 3
others refer to the use of chariots or other vehicles hauled by large flocks
1
of birds. In particular, story tells how King Kai Kawus of Persia harnessed
eagles to his throne. The eagles, illustrated in Fig. 4 had been trained and
t
strengthened for the task since birth. An account of his flights written in
the tenth century refers to the use of the equivalent of a donkey's carrot to
lure the eagles into the air, carrying the king's throne. At each of four
corners of the throne a javelin was stuck into the ground, its point vertical.
Goat's flesh was hung on the top of each spear, and as the eagles became hungry,
so their attempts to reach the food became greater, until enough lift was
generated to raise the king from the ground.
RELIGIOUS IDENTIFICATION
Flight was not solely the prerogative of man and the birds - winged horses
2
and bulls have also appeared fairly frequently. Human headed winged bulls of
enormous proportions were mystic guardians of the portals of the palace of
Sargon, situated at Khorsabad, and were emulated by his son Sennacherib at
Ninevah and also by King Xerxes at Persepolis. The Christian religion was not
the only one in which flight was necessary 'to cross the Styx'. Kings and
priests were shown to wear wings when portrayed in Assyrian reliefs during
religious ceremonies. On the sculptured walls of the palace at Nimrud, Ashur-
Nasir-Pal was shown wearing wings during the performance of sacrificial rites,
and scholars believe that the wings were worn on these occasions by those who
were deemed the representatives, and in some cases the incarnation, of the deity.
The Christian religion is to some considerable extent symbolised by winged
beings, no doubt partly because of the early belief that Heaven was in the sky
and flying was the sole form of motion likely to enable travel between Heaven
and Earth. Angels are normally thought of as winged, and many and varied
descriptions are revealed in the Bible, Christian artists have represented
and interpreted angels in many ways. The number of wings depends to a large
extent on the function performed by these spiritual representatives. As
classified by Dionysius, angels were arranged into nine ranks or orders, which
were grouped into three main divisions. Angels, Archangels and Principalities
constituted the 'ministers' whose assigned function it was to communicate
directly with man. The Powers, Virtues and Dominions were 'governors' who
relayed divine commands. The highest order comprised the Thrones, Cherubim
and Seraphim, known as 'councillors'. Only in this last category was a
departure made from the normal representation of two-winged beings with human
form. The Thrones were often portrayed as two fiery wheels with four wings,
Cherubim with six wings and Seraphim, reputed to embody the three virtues of
spirit, mobility and love, also had six wings: "Each had six wings; with two
he covered his face, and with two he covered his feet, with two he flew".
PORTRAYAL OF FLIGHT BY EARLY CIVILISATIONS
In early Chinese and Indian civilisations, advanced thought touched upon
similar ideas to those of European developed cultures. The mythologies of
Far Eastern civilisations often involved winged creatures, more often demons
than gods.
1
In the earliest records he is called Kaoos.
2
Blanche Stillson. Wings. Insects, Birds, Men. Gollancz. 1955.
4 Man-Powered Flight
In the great Indian epic, the Mahabharata, reference is made to an aerial
war chariot lifted by wings, and Sanskrit literature in general abounds with
notes on flying machines. The Indians are attributed with two distinct forms
of aerial vehicle; one of these was constructed on the principal of bird
flight, and the other was thought to have been derived from a system of
flight envisaged by the Greeks. This latter system was kept a closely guarded
secret.
T ?
About the eighth century, Buddhist Apsaras or angels were depicted in
paintings. In parallel with the development of the angels of Christianity
were the 'Hsien* or perfected immortals. These were represented as possessing
feathered wings, or wearing an outer garment covered with bird feathers.
EARLY CHINESE DOCUMENTED FLIGHTS
Some of the earliest documented attempts at serious investigation of the
possibilities of man-powered flight, and the first claim for a successful
1
flight, originate in China. Emperor Shun, who lived from 2258 B.C. to
2208 B.C. is reputed to have been taught rudimentary aerodynamics by the
daughters of Emperor Yao. Apparently he had the opportunity to put theory into
practice at first hand. He was constructing a granary, and, finding himself
trapped on the roof because the building had caught fire, he "donned the work
clothes of a bird, and flying made his escape". Other references quote the
use of two large straw hats as parachutes.
Needham, in his treatise entitled Science and Civilisation in China, goes
into considerable detail when describing early experiments on man-powered flight.
He states that self-propelled flying carts were the subject of the earliest
Chinese references to flight, as opposed to man using his muscles. The fourth
century saw a model helicopter top, to be seen much later in Western
civilisation.
An account of the construction of a model bird, made from wood with "wings
and pinions, having in its belly a mechanism which enabled it to fly several
! t 2
Li " is given in the book Wen Shih Chuan, written by Chang Yin. The design
of this flying machine was the work of Chang Heng, an astronomer and engineer
who lived from A.D. 78 to 139. Needham comments that forward propulsion could
conceivably have been obtained by using the airscrew development of the
helicopter top, but the only power source available at that time would have
been a spring, apart from muscle power. (A western parallel to this is the
1
'Flying Dove of Archytas of Tarentum, a Pythagorean).
An extremely obnoxious and tyrannical ruler, Emperor Wen Hsiian Ti of the
Northern Chhi, who ruled during the short Kao Yang dynasty from A.D. 550 to 551,
was noted for a singularly frightening method of punishment; he forced his
T f
prisoners to become guinea pigs to further his experiments into man-powered
ornithopter flight. One account of his cruel methods recounts how the Emperor
visited the Tower of the Golden Phoenix, this being approximately 30 metres
high, to receive Buddhist ordination. He ordered many prisoners condemned to
death to be brought forward, and instructed that they be harnessed with large
1 } 1
J. Needham, Science and Civilisation in China Vol. IV, Physics and
Physical Technology. Cambridge University Press, 1965.
2 r 9
A Li is approximately 0. 5 km.
Mythology or Fact 5
bamboo mats as wings. They were then ordered to jump from the top of the
tower, gliding or flapping their wings. Emperor W£n Hsiian justified his
actions in what was of course solely a form of execution by a convenient
1 1
mis-interpretation of the practice of the liberation of living creatures.
This was a Buddhist action for acquiring merit; birds and fish were released
immediately after being caught. To emphasise the character of W§n Hsiian, the
account of one of these visits to the tower includes reference to his enjoyment
of the spectacle, as all the prisoners jumped to their death. (A pardon would
be given to any prisoner who succeeded in flying from the top of the tower and
landing safely).
Apparently these were not the first Chinese attempts at flapping flight.
At the beginning of the first century there has been a well authenticated
series of experiments involving the imitation of bird motions. Unfortunately
the name of the inventor has not been preserved. However there is further
reference to such attempts in China. Wang Mang, the only Hsin emperor, found
his armies hard pressed during a campaign against the nomadic warriors on the
North-West China frontier. He mobilised all those who professed to have
super-natural power, or who were inventors, in order to find new weapons and
develop successful tactics to aid him in his war.
"One man said that he could fly a thousand li in a day, and spy out the
(movements of the) Huns. (Wang) Mang tested him without delay. He took
(as it were) the pinions of a great bird for his two wings, his head and
whole body were covered over with feathers, and all was interconnected by
means of (certain) rings and knots. He flew a distance of several
hundred paces, and then fell to the ground. Mang saw that the method
could be used ..."
Chinese civilisation is also likely to have been the first to develop
man-carrying kites.
THE ADVICE OF POETS
Bladud, the ninth king of ancient Britain, who reigned around 860 B.C.,
had numerous deeds accredited to him, including the founding of the City of
Bath, but his activities were brought to an abrupt end by his interest in
1
flying. His first and last flight was made, with the aid of a pair of wings,
from the roof of the Temple of Apollo in what is now London:
"Bathe was by Bladud to perfection brought,
By Necromanticke Artes, to flye he sought,
As from a Towre he thought to scale the Sky
He brake his necke, because he soared too high."
The seventeenth century English poet, John Taylor, possibly inspired by
the above record, endorsed the sceptics in writing:
"On high the tempests have much power to wrecke,
Then best to bide beneath, and safest for the necke."
Geoffrey of Monmouth. Historia Regum Bvitanniae, 1147
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