The fundamentals of microgrids: development and implementation

303 Pages·2021·61.623 MB·English

by  Roosa, Stephen A

Fundamentals of Microgrids

Fundamentals of Microgrids
Development and Implementation
Edited by
Stephen A. Roosa
First edition published 2021
by CRC Press
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ISBN: 978-0-367-53539-1 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-08240-8 (ebk)
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Dedication
This book is dedicated to my three wonderful children,
Sarah, Daniel, and Maryelle. They have grown into caring
and responsible adults. I know that during their lifetimes,
they and others like them will continue work to help ensure
the sustainability of our planet. After all, we must focus our
efforts on creating a better world for future generations.

Contents
Preface......................................................................................................................xv
Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................xvii
Editor Bio ................................................................................................................xix
Contributors ............................................................................................................xxi
List of Acronyms ................................................................................................. xxiii
Introduction ..........................................................................................................xxvii
Chapter 1 Introduction to Microgrids ..................................................................1
What Are Microgrids?..........................................................................1
Standalone Power ............................................................................2
Distributed Energy Resources .........................................................3
Why Would You Need a Microgrid? ...............................................4
Types of Microgrids ........................................................................6
How Does a Microgrid Help? ..........................................................8
Advantages and Disadvantages of Microgrids .....................................9
Advantages of Microgrids ............................................................. 11
Disadvantages of Microgrids .........................................................12
Summary ............................................................................................ 13
References .......................................................................................... 15
Chapter 2 Environmental Drivers for Microgrid Development .......................... 17
Introduction ........................................................................................ 17
The Hydrocarbon Age Has Arrived ...................................................18
Carbon Dioxide Emissions ...........................................................20
International Policies—Kyoto and the Paris Agreement ..............22
Carbon Management—Adapt or Mitigate? ...................................24
Costs of Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions .............................25
Potential for Reducing Carbon Emissions .....................................26
The New Economics of Coal Plants ..............................................27
Transitioning to a Low-Carbon Economy ..........................................28
Greenhouse Gas Reduction Strategies ..........................................29
Other Environmental Concerns .....................................................30
Microgrids Are One Solution ........................................................32
Conclusions ........................................................................................ 33
References ..........................................................................................34
Chapter 3 The Roots of Microgrids ....................................................................37
The Early History of Microgrids ........................................................37
Hydropower Microgrids ................................................................37
The World’s Largest Microgrid in 1883 ........................................38
vii
viii Contents
Alternating Current ............................................................................39
Combined Heat and Power .................................................................39
Mill Towns as a Model for Today’s Microgrids ............................40
Ships Are Microgrids ......................................................................... 41
Building-Scale Nanogrids .................................................................42
Sustainable Buildings ....................................................................42
Green Building Assessment Methods ...........................................44
Zero Net Energy Buildings ............................................................44
Nanogrids .....................................................................................45
Regional Grids....................................................................................46
The Role of Transportation Systems ..................................................48
Summary ............................................................................................50
References .......................................................................................... 51
Chapter 4 Traditional Electrical Supply Systems ............................................... 53
Supplying the Electric Grid ................................................................ 53
What Is the Electric Grid? ............................................................. 53
Categories of Energy Resources ...................................................54
Traditional Sources of Grid-Supplied Elecrical Power ......................56
Large Hydropower ........................................................................56
Coal-Fired Electrical Power ......................................................... 57
Natural Gas-Fired Electrical Power .............................................58
Diesel Generation ..........................................................................59
Nuclear Power ...............................................................................60
Problems with the Electric Grid .........................................................62
Security Issues ...............................................................................62
System Ineffciencies and Power Outages .....................................64
Environmental Issues ....................................................................65
Regulation of the Electric Grid .....................................................65
Connecting Microgrids with the Grid ................................................66
Summary ............................................................................................ 67
References ..........................................................................................68
Chapter 5 Microgrid Architecture and Regulation .............................................71
Features of Microgrid Architecture ................................................... 71
Microgrid Operational Confgurations ..........................................71
Planning for Electrical Distribution Systems ................................73
Alternative Architectures for AC and DC Microgrids ..................75
Components of Microgrids................................................................. 76
Power Sources ............................................................................... 76
Point of Common Coupling ...........................................................77
Microgrid Power Management Systems ........................................77
Categories of Loads .......................................................................79
Energy Storage Systems ................................................................79
Contents ix
Advanced Microgrids .........................................................................81
Microgrid Regulations and Standards ................................................84
U.S. Clean Air Act .........................................................................85
U.S. Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA) ..................85
IEEE Standard 1547-2018 for Interconnection and
Interoperability of Distributed Energy Resources with
Associated Electric Power Systems Interfaces ..............................86
IEEE P1547.4-2011 Guide for Design, Operation, and
Integration of Distributed Resource Island Systems with
Electric Power Systems ................................................................87
IEEE P2030.7-2007 IEEE Standard for the Specifcation of
Microgrid Controllers ...................................................................87
IEC 61727 International Electrotechnical Commission’s PV
System Requirements ....................................................................87
Microgrid Standards Being Developed .........................................88
Summary ............................................................................................88
Acknowledgments ..............................................................................89
References ..........................................................................................89
Chapter 6 Linking Microgrids with Renewable Generation ............................... 91
The Impact of Renewable Energy ...................................................... 91
Renewable Generation for Microgrids ...............................................93
Small Hydropower Systems ...........................................................94
Biomass Energy .............................................................................95
Landfll Gas Extraction .................................................................95
Solar Energy (Thermal) .................................................................97
Solar Energy (Photovoltaic) ...........................................................98
Wind Power .................................................................................100
Geothermal Energy .....................................................................100
Waste-to-Energy ......................................................................... 102
Comparitive Cost of Generation Systems ........................................ 103
Summary ......................................................................................... 105
References ........................................................................................ 106
Chapter 7 Energy Storage Technologies for Microgrids ................................... 109
Energy Storage Solves Problems ...................................................... 109
Electrical Energy Storage ................................................................. 110
Mechanical Energy Storage ............................................................. 111
Pumped Storage Hydroelectricity ............................................... 111
Compressed Air Energy Storage ................................................ 114
Flywheel Energy Storage ............................................................ 116
Electrical/Electrochemical Energy Storage ..................................... 116
Lead-Acid Batteries ..................................................................... 117
Lithium-Ion Batteries .................................................................. 117