The Essentials of Computer Organization and Architecture

834 Pages·2016·23.87 MB·English

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Null, Linda.
The essentials of computer organization and architecture / Linda Null and Julia Lobur. -- Fourth edition.
pages ; cm
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-284-03314-4 (pbk.) -- ISBN 1-284-03314-7 (pbk.) 1. Computer organization. 2. Computer architecture. I. Lobur, Julia. II. Title.
QA76.9.C643N85 2015
004.2’2--dc23 2013034383
6048
Printed in the United States of America
18 17 16 15 14 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
In memory of my father, Merrill Cornell, a pilot and man of endless talent and courage, who taught me
that when we step into the unknown, we either find solid ground, or we learn to fly.
—L. M. N.
To the loving memory of my mother, Anna J. Surowski, who made all things possible for her girls.
—J. M. L.
Contents
Preface
CHAPTER 1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
1.2 The Main Components of a Computer
1.3 An Example System: Wading Through the Jargon
1.4 Standards Organizations
1.5 Historical Development
1.5.1 Generation Zero: Mechanical Calculating Machines (1642–1945)
1.5.2 The First Generation: Vacuum Tube Computers (1945–1953)
1.5.3 The Second Generation: Transistorized Computers (1954–1965)
1.5.4 The Third Generation: Integrated Circuit Computers (1965–1980)
1.5.5 The Fourth Generation: VLSI Computers (1980–????)
1.5.6 Moore’s Law
1.6 The Computer Level Hierarchy
1.7 Cloud Computing: Computing as a Service
1.8 The Von Neumann Model
1.9 Non–Von Neumann Models
1.10 Parallel Processors and Parallel Computing
1.11 Parallelism: Enabler of Machine Intelligence—Deep Blue and Watson
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises
CHAPTER 2 Data Representation in Computer Systems
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Positional Numbering Systems
2.3 Converting Between Bases
2.3.1 Converting Unsigned Whole Numbers
2.3.2 Converting Fractions
2.3.3 Converting Between Power-of-Two Radices
2.4 Signed Integer Representation
2.4.1 Signed Magnitude
2.4.2 Complement Systems
2.4.3 Excess-M Representation for Signed Numbers
2.4.4 Unsigned Versus Signed Numbers
2.4.5 Computers, Arithmetic, and Booth’s Algorithm
2.4.6 Carry Versus Overflow
2.4.7 Binary Multiplication and Division Using Shifting
2.5 Floating-Point Representation
2.5.1 A Simple Model
2.5.2 Floating-Point Arithmetic
2.5.3 Floating-Point Errors
2.5.4 The IEEE-754 Floating-Point Standard
2.5.5 Range, Precision, and Accuracy
2.5.6 Additional Problems with Floating-Point Numbers
2.6 Character Codes
2.6.1 Binary-Coded Decimal
2.6.2 EBCDIC
2.6.3 ASCII
2.6.4 Unicode
2.7 Error Detection and Correction
2.7.1 Cyclic Redundancy Check
2.7.2 Hamming Codes
2.7.3 Reed-Solomon
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises
Focus on Codes for Data Recording and Transmission
2A.1 Non-Return-to-Zero Code
2A.2 Non-Return-to-Zero-Invert Code
2A.3 Phase Modulation (Manchester Code)
2A.4 Frequency Modulation
2A.5 Run-Length-Limited Code
2A.6 Partial Response Maximum Likelihood Coding
2A.7 Summary
Exercises
CHAPTER 3 Boolean Algebra and Digital Logic
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Boolean Algebra
3.2.1 Boolean Expressions
3.2.2 Boolean Identities
3.2.3 Simplification of Boolean Expressions
3.2.4 Complements
3.2.5 Representing Boolean Functions
3.3 Logic Gates
3.3.1 Symbols for Logic Gates
3.3.2 Universal Gates
3.3.3 Multiple Input Gates
3.4 Digital Components
3.4.1 Digital Circuits and Their Relationship to Boolean Algebra
3.4.2 Integrated Circuits
3.4.3 Putting It All Together: From Problem Description to Circuit
3.5 Combinational Circuits
3.5.1 Basic Concepts
3.5.2 Examples of Typical Combinational Circuits
3.6 Sequential Circuits
3.6.1 Basic Concepts
3.6.2 Clocks
3.6.3 Flip-Flops
3.6.4 Finite State Machines
3.6.5 Examples of Sequential Circuits
3.6.6 An Application of Sequential Logic: Convolutional Coding and Viterbi
Detection
3.7 Designing Circuits
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises
Focus on Karnaugh Maps
3A.1 Introduction
3A.2 Description of Kmaps and Terminology
3A.3 Kmap Simplification for Two Variables
3A.4 Kmap Simplification for Three Variables
3A.5 Kmap Simplification for Four Variables
3A.6 Don’t Care Conditions
3A.7 Summary
Exercises
CHAPTER 4 MARIE: An Introduction to a Simple Computer
4.1 Introduction
4.2 CPU Basics and Organization
4.2.1 The Registers
4.2.2 The ALU
4.2.3 The Control Unit
4.3 The Bus
4.4 Clocks
4.5 The Input/Output Subsystem
4.6 Memory Organization and Addressing
4.7 Interrupts
4.8 MARIE
4.8.1 The Architecture
4.8.2 Registers and Buses
4.8.3 Instruction Set Architecture
4.8.4 Register Transfer Notation
4.9 Instruction Processing
4.9.1 The Fetch–Decode–Execute Cycle
4.9.2 Interrupts and the Instruction Cycle
4.9.3 MARIE’s I/O
4.10 A Simple Program
4.11 A Discussion on Assemblers
4.11.1 What Do Assemblers Do?
4.11.2 Why Use Assembly Language?
4.12 Extending Our Instruction Set
4.13 A Discussion on Decoding: Hardwired Versus Microprogrammed Control
4.13.1 Machine Control
4.13.2 Hardwired Control
4.13.3 Microprogrammed Control
4.14 Real-World Examples of Computer Architectures
4.14.1 Intel Architectures
4.14.2 MIPS Architectures
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises
CHAPTER 5 A Closer Look at Instruction Set Architectures
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Instruction Formats
5.2.1 Design Decisions for Instruction Sets
5.2.2 Little Versus Big Endian
5.2.3 Internal Storage in the CPU: Stacks Versus Registers
5.2.4 Number of Operands and Instruction Length
5.2.5 Expanding Opcodes
5.3 Instruction Types
5.3.1 Data Movement
5.3.2 Arithmetic Operations
5.3.3 Boolean Logic Instructions
5.3.4 Bit Manipulation Instructions
5.3.5 Input/Output Instructions
5.3.6 Instructions for Transfer of Control
5.3.7 Special-Purpose Instructions
5.3.8 Instruction Set Orthogonality
5.4 Addressing
5.4.1 Data Types
5.4.2 Address Modes
5.5 Instruction Pipelining
5.6 Real-World Examples of ISAs
5.6.1 Intel
5.6.2 MIPS
5.6.3 Java Virtual Machine
5.6.4 ARM
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises
CHAPTER 6 Memory
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Types of Memory
6.3 The Memory Hierarchy
6.3.1 Locality of Reference
6.4 Cache Memory
6.4.1 Cache Mapping Schemes
6.4.2 Replacement Policies
6.4.3 Effective Access Time and Hit Ratio
6.4.4 When Does Caching Break Down?
6.4.5 Cache Write Policies
6.4.6 Instruction and Data Caches
6.4.7 Levels of Cache
6.5 Virtual Memory
6.5.1 Paging
6.5.2 Effective Access Time Using Paging
6.5.3 Putting It All Together: Using Cache, TLBs, and Paging
6.5.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Paging and Virtual Memory
6.5.5 Segmentation
6.5.6 Paging Combined with Segmentation
6.6 A Real-World Example of Memory Management
Chapter Summary
Further Reading
References
Review of Essential Terms and Concepts
Exercises
CHAPTER 7 Input/Output and Storage Systems
7.1 Introduction
7.2 I/O and Performance
7.3 Amdahl’ s Law
7.4 I/O Architectures
7.4.1 I/O Control Methods
7.4.2 Character I/O Versus Block I/O
7.4.3 I/O Bus Operation
7.5 Data Transmission Modes
7.5.1 Parallel Data Transmission
7.5.2 Serial Data Transmission
7.6 Magnetic Disk Technology
7.6.1 Rigid Disk Drives
7.6.2 Solid State Drives
7.7 Optical Disks
7.7.1 CD-ROM
7.7.2 DVD
7.7.3 Blue-Violet Laser Discs