Table Of Content

THE EFFECT OF STERILIZATION ON PLASTICS AND ELASTOMERS PLASTICSDESIGNLIBRARY(PDL) PDLHANDBOOKSERIES SeriesEditor:SinaEbffnesajjad,PhD President,FluoroConsultantsGroup,LLC ChaddsFord,PA,USA www.FluoroConsultants.com ThePDLHandbookSeriesisaimedatawiderangeofengineersandotherprofessionalsworkingintheplasticsindustry,and relatedsectorsusingplasticsandadhesives. PDLisaseriesofdatabooks,referenceworksandpracticalguidescoveringplasticsengineering,applications,processing,and manufacturing,andappliedaspectsofpolymerscience,elastomersandadhesives. Recenttitlesintheseries Brandau,Stretchblowmolding,SecondEdition ISBN:9781437735277 Chandrasekaran,RubberSealsforFluidandHydraulicSystems ISBN:9780815520757 Ebnesajjad,HandbookofAdhesivesandSurfacePreparation ISBN:9781437744613 Ebnesajjad,FluoropolymerAdditives ISBN:9781437734614 Grot,FluorinatedIonomers,SecondEdition ISBN:9781437744576 Kutz,AppliedPlasticsEngineeringHandbook ISBN:9781437735147 Kutz,PEEKBiomaterialsHandbook ISBN:9781437744637 McKeen,FatiqueandTribologicalPropertiesofPlasticsAndElastomers,SecondEdition ISBN:9780080964508 McKeen,PermeabilityPropertiesofplasticsandElastomers,Thirdedition ISBN:9781437734690 McKeen,TheEffectofCreepandOtherTimeRelatedFactorsonPlasticsandElastomers,SecondEdition ISBN:9780815515852 Sastri,PlasticsinMedicalDevices ISBN:9780815520276 Tolinski,AdditivesforPolyolefins ISBN:9780815520511 Wagner,MultilayerFlexiblePackaging ISBN:9780815520214 Woishnis&Ebnesajjad,ChemicalResistanceofThermoplastics(2volumeset) ISBN:9781455778966 Tosubmitanewbookproposalfortheseries,pleasecontact SinaEbnesajjad,SeriesEditor [email protected] or MatthewDeans,SeniorPublisher [email protected] THE EFFECT OF STERILIZATION ON PLASTICS AND ELASTOMERS Third Edition Laurence McKeen Amsterdam(cid:1)Boston(cid:1)Heidelberg(cid:1)London(cid:1)NewYork(cid:1)Oxford Paris(cid:1)SanDiego(cid:1)SanFrancisco(cid:1)Singapore(cid:1)Sydney(cid:1)Tokyo WilliamAndrewisanimprintofElsevier William Andrewisanimprintof Elsevier 225 WymanStreet, Waltham, 02451, USA TheBoulevard, LangfordLane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB,UK Firstedition 1994 Second edition2006 Third edition 2012 Copyright (cid:1) 2012Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved No part ofthis publicationmay bereproduced ortransmitted inanyform orby anymeans, electronicor mechanical, includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthe publisher. Details on howto seek permission, further informationabout the Publisher’spermissions policies and our arrangementwithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearanceCenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefound at ourwebsite: www.elsevier.com/permissions ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher(otherthanasmay be noted herein). Notice Knowledge and best practice inthisfield are constantlychanging. As new research and experiencebroaden ourunder- standing, changesin research methods, professionalpractices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers mustalways rely on their own experience and knowledge inevaluating andusingany information,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbe mindfuloftheir ownsafety and the safetyofothers,includingpartiesfor whomtheyhave aprofessional responsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeanyliabilityforany injuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseor operation ofanymethods, products,instructions, orideas containedin the materialherein. Libraryof CongressCataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalog recordfor this book isavailable from the Library ofCongress British Library Cataloguingin Publication Data A catalog recordfor this book isavailable from the British Library ISBN:978-1-4557-2598-4 ForinformationonallWilliamAndrewpublications visit ourwebsite at store.elsevier.com Printed and bound inGreat Britain 12 11 10 98 7 6 54 3 2 1 Contents Preafce....................................................................................................................................................................................xi 1. Introduction toFood Irradiationand Medical Sterilization.....................................................................................1 1.1. Pathogens.................................................................................................................................................................1 1.1.1. Bacteria.........................................................................................................................................................1 1.1.2. Viruses...........................................................................................................................................................3 1.1.3. Endospores....................................................................................................................................................3 1.1.4. Other Infectious Agents................................................................................................................................4 1.1.4.1. Prions..............................................................................................................................................4 1.1.4.2. Helminthes......................................................................................................................................4 1.1.4.3. Fungi:Molds andYeasts................................................................................................................5 1.1.4.4. Protozoans......................................................................................................................................5 1.1.5. Biofilm..........................................................................................................................................................6 1.2. Food-Borne Disease Control...................................................................................................................................6 1.2.1. The History ofFoodPreservation..............................................................................................................7 1.2.2. The History ofFoodIrradiation.................................................................................................................8 1.2.3. Dosage Measuresof Radiation...................................................................................................................9 1.2.4. ElectronBeam Irradiator............................................................................................................................9 1.2.5. Gamma Irradiator......................................................................................................................................10 1.2.6. X-Ray Irradiator........................................................................................................................................11 1.2.7. UltravioletGermicidal Irradiation............................................................................................................12 1.2.8. Microwave.................................................................................................................................................14 1.2.9. Infrared......................................................................................................................................................14 1.2.10. HowDoesIrradiationDestroy Bacteria?.................................................................................................15 1.2.11. Doses ofRadiation Required....................................................................................................................15 1.2.12. Dosimetry..................................................................................................................................................16 1.3. Medical Sterilization..............................................................................................................................................16 1.3.1. Sterilization, Disinfection, and Asepsis.....................................................................................................17 1.3.2. Thermal Methodsof Sterilization..............................................................................................................18 1.3.2.1. SteamSterilization/Autoclave......................................................................................................18 1.3.2.2. Flash Sterilization.........................................................................................................................20 1.3.2.3. DryHeatSterilization..................................................................................................................20 1.3.2.4. Glass Bead Sterilizer....................................................................................................................21 1.3.2.5. Microwave....................................................................................................................................21 1.3.2.6. IR Radiation.................................................................................................................................21 1.3.3. ChemicalDisinfectants eLiquids.............................................................................................................22 1.3.3.1. Alcohol........................................................................................................................................22 1.3.3.2. Chlorine andChlorine Compounds............................................................................................23 1.3.3.3. Liquid Formaldehyde..................................................................................................................25 1.3.3.4. Glutaraldehyde............................................................................................................................26 1.3.3.5. Hydrogen Peroxide.....................................................................................................................26 1.3.3.6. Iodophors....................................................................................................................................27 1.3.3.7. Ortho-Phthalaldehyde.................................................................................................................27 1.3.3.8. Peracetic Acid.............................................................................................................................28 1.3.3.9. Peracetic Acid andHydrogenPeroxide.....................................................................................28 v vi C ONTENTS 1.3.3.10. Phenolics.....................................................................................................................................29 1.3.3.11. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds.........................................................................................30 1.3.3.12. Surfacine.....................................................................................................................................30 1.3.3.13. Controlling Biofilm.....................................................................................................................30 1.3.4. Gas and Vapor Sterilizing...........................................................................................................................31 1.3.4.1. Ethylene Oxide Sterilization........................................................................................................31 1.3.4.2. Vaporized Hydrogen Peroxide.....................................................................................................33 1.3.4.3. Low-TemperatureHydrogenPeroxideGas Plasma....................................................................33 1.3.4.4. Formaldehyde Gaseous Sterilization...........................................................................................34 1.3.4.5. Formaldehyde Steam....................................................................................................................34 1.3.4.6. Ozone............................................................................................................................................35 1.3.4.7. Gaseous Chlorine Dioxide...........................................................................................................35 1.3.4.8. Vaporized Peracetic Acid.............................................................................................................35 1.3.5. Ionizing Radiation......................................................................................................................................36 1.3.5.1. UV Radiation...............................................................................................................................36 1.4. Bioterrorism...........................................................................................................................................................36 1.5. Summary................................................................................................................................................................39 References......................................................................................................................................................................39 2. Introduction toPlastics and Polymers.......................................................................................................................41 2.1. Polymerization.....................................................................................................................................................41 2.1.1. AdditionPolymerization...........................................................................................................................41 2.1.2. Condensation Polymerization...................................................................................................................41 2.2. Copolymers..........................................................................................................................................................42 2.3. Linear, Branched,and Cross-Linked Polymers...................................................................................................43 2.4. Polarity.................................................................................................................................................................43 2.5. Unsaturation.........................................................................................................................................................44 2.6. Steric Hindrance...................................................................................................................................................45 2.7. Isomers.................................................................................................................................................................45 2.7.1. Structural Isomers.....................................................................................................................................45 2.7.2. Geometric Isomers....................................................................................................................................45 2.7.3. Stereosiomers e Syndiotactic, Isotactic,and Atactic..............................................................................46 2.8. Inter-andIntramolecular Attractionsin Polymers.............................................................................................46 2.8.1. Hydrogen Bonding....................................................................................................................................47 2.8.2. Van der WaalsForces...............................................................................................................................47 2.8.3. Chain Entanglement.................................................................................................................................48 2.9. General Classifications.........................................................................................................................................48 2.9.1. Molecular Weight.....................................................................................................................................48 2.9.2. Thermosetsvs. Thermoplastics................................................................................................................49 2.9.3. Crystallinevs. Amorphous.......................................................................................................................49 2.9.4. Orientation................................................................................................................................................50 2.10. PlasticCompositions............................................................................................................................................50 2.10.1. Polymer Blends.......................................................................................................................................50 2.10.2. Elastomers...............................................................................................................................................51 2.10.3. Additives.................................................................................................................................................51 2.10.3.1. Fillers,Reinforcement,Composites......................................................................................51 2.10.3.2. CombustionModifiers, Fire, Flame Retardants, and Smoke Suppressants.........................52 2.10.3.3. ReleaseAgents......................................................................................................................52 2.10.3.4. Slip Additives/InternalLubricants........................................................................................53 2.10.3.5. Antiblock Additives..............................................................................................................53 2.10.3.6. Catalysts................................................................................................................................53 2.10.3.7. Impact Modifiers and Tougheners........................................................................................54 2.10.3.8. Radiation Stabilizers.............................................................................................................54 2.10.3.9. Optical Brighteners...............................................................................................................54 2.10.3.10. Plasticizers.............................................................................................................................54 C vii ONTENTS 2.10.3.11. Pigments,Extenders, Dyes,and Mica..................................................................................55 2.10.3.12. Coupling Agents....................................................................................................................55 2.10.3.13. Thermal Stabilizers...............................................................................................................55 2.10.3.14. Antistats.................................................................................................................................55 2.11. Summary..............................................................................................................................................................55 References......................................................................................................................................................................55 3. Introduction tothe Physical, Mechanical,and ThermalProperties ofPlastics and Elastomers.......................57 3.1. Physical Property Testing......................................................................................................................................57 3.1.1. SpecificGravityor Density........................................................................................................................57 3.1.2. Appearance: Color, Haze, andGloss.........................................................................................................58 3.1.2.1. Color.............................................................................................................................................58 3.1.2.2. Gloss Measurement......................................................................................................................59 3.1.2.3. HazeMeasurement.......................................................................................................................61 3.1.2.4. Yellowness Index..........................................................................................................................61 3.2. Mechanical Testing ofPlastics..............................................................................................................................62 3.2.1. Tensile Properties.......................................................................................................................................64 3.2.2. Rigidity of Plastics Materials.....................................................................................................................67 3.2.3. Shear Properties..........................................................................................................................................68 3.2.4. FlexuralProperties......................................................................................................................................70 3.2.5. Puncture andImpact Properties.................................................................................................................70 3.2.5.1. High-Speed Puncture Test............................................................................................................71 3.2.5.2. DropDartImpact Test for Plastics Film.....................................................................................72 3.2.5.3. Izod Impact Strength andCharpyImpact Strength.....................................................................73 3.2.5.4. Gardner andFallingDart Impact Strength..................................................................................73 3.2.6. Tear Properties............................................................................................................................................75 3.2.6.1. Elmendorf Tear Strength..............................................................................................................75 3.2.6.2. TrouserTear Resistance...............................................................................................................76 3.2.7. Toughness...................................................................................................................................................76 3.3. Thermal PropertyTestingofPlastics....................................................................................................................77 3.3.1. Melt Flow Index.........................................................................................................................................77 3.3.2. Heat Deflection Temperature......................................................................................................................79 3.3.3. VicatSofteningTemperature......................................................................................................................79 3.3.4. Melting Point (Tm)......................................................................................................................................80 3.3.5. Glass Transition Temperature (Tg).............................................................................................................80 3.3.5.1. Mechanical Methodsof Estimating T ........................................................................................81 g 3.3.5.2. Thermal Mechanical Analysis.....................................................................................................81 3.3.5.3. Thermal Methods ofEstimating T .............................................................................................82 g References......................................................................................................................................................................84 4. Styrenic Plastics...........................................................................................................................................................85 4.1. AcrylonitrileeButadieneeStyrene Copolymer.....................................................................................................85 4.2. MethacrylateeAcrylonitrileeButadieneeStyrene Copolymer.............................................................................92 4.3. Polystyrene.............................................................................................................................................................92 4.3.1. General-Purposeor Crystal Polystyrene....................................................................................................92 4.3.2. High-HeatCrystal Polystyrene.................................................................................................................103 4.3.3. Syndiotactic Polystyrene..........................................................................................................................103 4.3.4. High-Impact Polystyrene..........................................................................................................................103 4.4. SAN Copolymer...................................................................................................................................................103 4.5. StyreneeButadiene Copolymers.........................................................................................................................110 References....................................................................................................................................................................132 5. Polyesters....................................................................................................................................................................133 5.1. Liquid CrystallinePolymers................................................................................................................................133 5.2. PolybutyleneTerephthalate..................................................................................................................................135 viii C ONTENTS 5.3. Polycarbonate.......................................................................................................................................................135 5.4. Polyethylene Terephthalate..................................................................................................................................140 5.5. Polycyclohexylene-Dimethylene Terephthalate..................................................................................................141 5.6. Copolyesters.........................................................................................................................................................159 5.7. Polyethylene Naphthalate....................................................................................................................................166 5.8. Polyphthalate Carbonate......................................................................................................................................167 References....................................................................................................................................................................167 6. Polyimides...................................................................................................................................................................169 6.1. Polyamide-Imide..................................................................................................................................................169 6.2. Polyetherimide.....................................................................................................................................................170 6.3. Polyimide.............................................................................................................................................................174 References....................................................................................................................................................................182 7. Polyamides (Nylons)...................................................................................................................................................183 7.1. Polyamide 6(Nylon 6)........................................................................................................................................184 7.2. Polyamide 11(Nylon 11)....................................................................................................................................185 7.3. Polyamide 12(Nylon 12)....................................................................................................................................187 7.4. Polyamide 66(Nylon 66)....................................................................................................................................188 7.5. Polyarylamide......................................................................................................................................................188 7.6. Copolymers/Terpolymers.....................................................................................................................................192 References....................................................................................................................................................................198 8. Polyolefins...................................................................................................................................................................201 8.1. Polyethylene.........................................................................................................................................................201 8.1.1. Ultra Low-Densitypolyethylene..............................................................................................................202 8.1.2. LinearLow-DensityPolyethylene............................................................................................................202 8.1.3. Low-DensityPolyethylene (LDPE).........................................................................................................203 8.1.4. High-Density Polyethylene.......................................................................................................................203 8.1.5. Ultrahigh Molecular WeightPolyethylene...............................................................................................213 8.2. Polypropylene............................................... .......................................................................................................215 8.3. Poly-4-Methyl-1-Pentene.....................................................................................................................................221 8.4. CyclicOlefin Copolymer.....................................................................................................................................225 8.5. Plastomer..............................................................................................................................................................225 References....................................................................................................................................................................226 9. Polyvinyls and Acrylics.............................................................................................................................................227 9.1. EthyleneeVinyl Acetate Copolymer...................................................................................................................227 9.2. EthyleneeVinyl Alcohol Copolymer..................................................................................................................228 9.3. PolyvinylChloride...............................................................................................................................................231 9.4. PolyvinylideneChloride......................................................................................................................................234 9.5. Polyacrylics..........................................................................................................................................................239 9.5.1. Homopolymer...........................................................................................................................................240 9.5.2. Acrylic Copolymer...................................................................................................................................240 9.5.3. Acrylic Terpolymer...................................................................................................................................240 9.6. AcrylonitrileeMethyl Acrylate Copolymer........................................................................................................253 9.7. Ionomers...............................................................................................................................................................253 References....................................................................................................................................................................258 10. Fluoropolymers...........................................................................................................................................................261 10.1. Polytetrafluoroethylene.......................................................................................................................................262 10.2. Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene.........................................................................................................................264 10.3. Perfluoroalkoxy...................................................................................................................................................265 10.3.1. PFA.........................................................................................................................................................267 10.3.2. MFA.......................................................................................................................................................268 10.4. AmorphousFluoropolymere TeflonAF(cid:1)........................................................................................................268 C ix ONTENTS 10.5. PolyvinylFluoride..............................................................................................................................................269 10.6. Polychlorotrifluoroethylene................................................................................................................................270 10.7. Polyvinylidene Fluoride......................................................................................................................................271 10.8. EthyleneeTetrafluoroethyleneCopolymer.........................................................................................................274 10.9. EthyleneeChlorotrifluoroethylene Copolymer..................................................................................................275 References.....................................................................................................................................................................276 11. High-Temperature/High-Performance Polymers....................................................................................................277 11.1. PolyetherEther Ketone.......................................................................................................................................277 11.2. Polyaryletherketone............................................................................................................................................277 11.3. Polyphenylene Sulfide........................................................................................................................................282 11.4. Polysulfone..........................................................................................................................................................284 11.5. Polyphenylsulfone...............................................................................................................................................285 11.6. Polyethersulfone..................................................................................................................................................292 11.7. Parylene (Poly(p-Xylylene))...............................................................................................................................296 11.8. Polyoxymethylene (Acetal Homopolymer)/PolyoxymethyleneCopolymer (Acetal Copolymer)....................300 11.9. Self-Reinforced Polymers...................................................................................................................................301 References.....................................................................................................................................................................304 12. Renewable Resourceand Biodegradable Polymers................................................................................................305 12.1. Polyanhydrides....................................................................................................................................................309 12.2. Cellophane(cid:3).......................................................................................................................................................309 12.3. Nitrocellulose......................................................................................................................................................310 12.4. Ethyl Cellulose(Hydroxyethylcellulose)...........................................................................................................311 12.5. Polycaprolactone.................................................................................................................................................311 12.6. PolyLactic Acid (PLA)and Poly L-Lactic Acid (PLLA).................................................................................311 12.7. Poly-3-Hydroxybutyrate.....................................................................................................................................313 12.8. Polyglycolic Acid...............................................................................................................................................315 References.....................................................................................................................................................................317 13. Elastomers............................................................. ......................................................................................................319 13.1. Thermoplastic PolyetherBlock PolyamideElastomers (TPA-ETorPEBA)....................................................320 13.2. Thermoplastic CopolyesterElastomers(TPC-Eor COPE)...............................................................................320 13.3. Olefinic Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPO).........................................................................................................322 13.4. Styrenic Block Copolymer Thermoplastic Elastomers(TPS)...........................................................................325 13.5. Thermoplastic Polyurethane Elastomers (TPU).................................................................................................331 13.6. Polysiloxane/Silicone Rubber.............................................................................................................................339 References.....................................................................................................................................................................352 Index...................................................................................................................................................................................355

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THE EFFECT OF STERILIZATION ON PLASTICS AND ELASTOMERS PLASTICSDESIGNLIBRARY(PDL) PDLHANDBOOKSERIES SeriesEditor:SinaEbffnesajjad,PhD President,FluoroConsultantsGroup,LLC ChaddsFord,PA,USA www.FluoroConsultants.com ThePDLHandbookSeriesisaimedatawiderangeofengineersandotherprofessionalsworkingintheplasticsindustry,and relatedsectorsusingplasticsandadhesives. PDLisaseriesofdatabooks,referenceworksandpracticalguidescoveringplasticsengineering,applications,processing,and manufacturing,andappliedaspectsofpolymerscience,elastomersandadhesives. Recenttitlesintheseries Brandau,Stretchblowmolding,SecondEdition ISBN:9781437735277 Chandrasekaran,RubberSealsforFluidandHydraulicSystems ISBN:9780815520757 Ebnesajjad,HandbookofAdhesivesandSurfacePreparation ISBN:9781437744613 Ebnesajjad,FluoropolymerAdditives ISBN:9781437734614 Grot,FluorinatedIonomers,SecondEdition ISBN:9781437744576 Kutz,AppliedPlasticsEngineeringHandbook ISBN:9781437735147 Kutz,PEEKBiomaterialsHandbook ISBN:9781437744637 McKeen,FatiqueandTribologicalPropertiesofPlasticsAndElastomers,SecondEdition ISBN:9780080964508 McKeen,PermeabilityPropertiesofplasticsandElastomers,Thirdedition ISBN:9781437734690 McKeen,TheEffectofCreepandOtherTimeRelatedFactorsonPlasticsandElastomers,SecondEdition ISBN:9780815515852 Sastri,PlasticsinMedicalDevices ISBN:9780815520276 Tolinski,AdditivesforPolyolefins ISBN:9780815520511 Wagner,MultilayerFlexiblePackaging ISBN:9780815520214 Woishnis&Ebnesajjad,ChemicalResistanceofThermoplastics(2volumeset) ISBN:9781455778966 Tosubmitanewbookproposalfortheseries,pleasecontact SinaEbnesajjad,SeriesEditor [email protected] or MatthewDeans,SeniorPublisher [email protected] THE EFFECT OF STERILIZATION ON PLASTICS AND ELASTOMERS Third Edition Laurence McKeen Amsterdam(cid:1)Boston(cid:1)Heidelberg(cid:1)London(cid:1)NewYork(cid:1)Oxford Paris(cid:1)SanDiego(cid:1)SanFrancisco(cid:1)Singapore(cid:1)Sydney(cid:1)Tokyo WilliamAndrewisanimprintofElsevier William Andrewisanimprintof Elsevier 225 WymanStreet, Waltham, 02451, USA TheBoulevard, LangfordLane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB,UK Firstedition 1994 Second edition2006 Third edition 2012 Copyright (cid:1) 2012Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved No part ofthis publicationmay bereproduced ortransmitted inanyform orby anymeans, electronicor mechanical, includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthe publisher. Details on howto seek permission, further informationabout the Publisher’spermissions policies and our arrangementwithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearanceCenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefound at ourwebsite: www.elsevier.com/permissions ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher(otherthanasmay be noted herein). Notice Knowledge and best practice inthisfield are constantlychanging. As new research and experiencebroaden ourunder- standing, changesin research methods, professionalpractices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers mustalways rely on their own experience and knowledge inevaluating andusingany information,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbe mindfuloftheir ownsafety and the safetyofothers,includingpartiesfor whomtheyhave aprofessional responsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeanyliabilityforany injuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseor operation ofanymethods, products,instructions, orideas containedin the materialherein. Libraryof CongressCataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalog recordfor this book isavailable from the Library ofCongress British Library Cataloguingin Publication Data A catalog recordfor this book isavailable from the British Library ISBN:978-1-4557-2598-4 ForinformationonallWilliamAndrewpublications visit ourwebsite at store.elsevier.com Printed and bound inGreat Britain 12 11 10 98 7 6 54 3 2 1 Contents Preafce....................................................................................................................................................................................xi 1. Introduction toFood Irradiationand Medical Sterilization.....................................................................................1 1.1. Pathogens.................................................................................................................................................................1 1.1.1. Bacteria.........................................................................................................................................................1 1.1.2. Viruses...........................................................................................................................................................3 1.1.3. Endospores....................................................................................................................................................3 1.1.4. Other Infectious Agents................................................................................................................................4 1.1.4.1. Prions..............................................................................................................................................4 1.1.4.2. Helminthes......................................................................................................................................4 1.1.4.3. Fungi:Molds andYeasts................................................................................................................5 1.1.4.4. Protozoans......................................................................................................................................5 1.1.5. Biofilm..........................................................................................................................................................6 1.2. Food-Borne Disease Control...................................................................................................................................6 1.2.1. The History ofFoodPreservation..............................................................................................................7 1.2.2. The History ofFoodIrradiation.................................................................................................................8 1.2.3. Dosage Measuresof Radiation...................................................................................................................9 1.2.4. ElectronBeam Irradiator............................................................................................................................9 1.2.5. Gamma Irradiator......................................................................................................................................10 1.2.6. X-Ray Irradiator........................................................................................................................................11 1.2.7. UltravioletGermicidal Irradiation............................................................................................................12 1.2.8. Microwave.................................................................................................................................................14 1.2.9. Infrared......................................................................................................................................................14 1.2.10. HowDoesIrradiationDestroy Bacteria?.................................................................................................15 1.2.11. Doses ofRadiation Required....................................................................................................................15 1.2.12. Dosimetry..................................................................................................................................................16 1.3. Medical Sterilization..............................................................................................................................................16 1.3.1. Sterilization, Disinfection, and Asepsis.....................................................................................................17 1.3.2. Thermal Methodsof Sterilization..............................................................................................................18 1.3.2.1. SteamSterilization/Autoclave......................................................................................................18 1.3.2.2. Flash Sterilization.........................................................................................................................20 1.3.2.3. DryHeatSterilization..................................................................................................................20 1.3.2.4. Glass Bead Sterilizer....................................................................................................................21 1.3.2.5. Microwave....................................................................................................................................21 1.3.2.6. IR Radiation.................................................................................................................................21 1.3.3. ChemicalDisinfectants eLiquids.............................................................................................................22 1.3.3.1. Alcohol........................................................................................................................................22 1.3.3.2. Chlorine andChlorine Compounds............................................................................................23 1.3.3.3. Liquid Formaldehyde..................................................................................................................25 1.3.3.4. Glutaraldehyde............................................................................................................................26 1.3.3.5. Hydrogen Peroxide.....................................................................................................................26 1.3.3.6. Iodophors....................................................................................................................................27 1.3.3.7. Ortho-Phthalaldehyde.................................................................................................................27 1.3.3.8. Peracetic Acid.............................................................................................................................28 1.3.3.9. Peracetic Acid andHydrogenPeroxide.....................................................................................28 v vi C ONTENTS 1.3.3.10. Phenolics.....................................................................................................................................29 1.3.3.11. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds.........................................................................................30 1.3.3.12. Surfacine.....................................................................................................................................30 1.3.3.13. Controlling Biofilm.....................................................................................................................30 1.3.4. Gas and Vapor Sterilizing...........................................................................................................................31 1.3.4.1. Ethylene Oxide Sterilization........................................................................................................31 1.3.4.2. Vaporized Hydrogen Peroxide.....................................................................................................33 1.3.4.3. Low-TemperatureHydrogenPeroxideGas Plasma....................................................................33 1.3.4.4. Formaldehyde Gaseous Sterilization...........................................................................................34 1.3.4.5. Formaldehyde Steam....................................................................................................................34 1.3.4.6. Ozone............................................................................................................................................35 1.3.4.7. Gaseous Chlorine Dioxide...........................................................................................................35 1.3.4.8. Vaporized Peracetic Acid.............................................................................................................35 1.3.5. Ionizing Radiation......................................................................................................................................36 1.3.5.1. UV Radiation...............................................................................................................................36 1.4. Bioterrorism...........................................................................................................................................................36 1.5. Summary................................................................................................................................................................39 References......................................................................................................................................................................39 2. Introduction toPlastics and Polymers.......................................................................................................................41 2.1. Polymerization.....................................................................................................................................................41 2.1.1. AdditionPolymerization...........................................................................................................................41 2.1.2. Condensation Polymerization...................................................................................................................41 2.2. Copolymers..........................................................................................................................................................42 2.3. Linear, Branched,and Cross-Linked Polymers...................................................................................................43 2.4. Polarity.................................................................................................................................................................43 2.5. Unsaturation.........................................................................................................................................................44 2.6. Steric Hindrance...................................................................................................................................................45 2.7. Isomers.................................................................................................................................................................45 2.7.1. Structural Isomers.....................................................................................................................................45 2.7.2. Geometric Isomers....................................................................................................................................45 2.7.3. Stereosiomers e Syndiotactic, Isotactic,and Atactic..............................................................................46 2.8. Inter-andIntramolecular Attractionsin Polymers.............................................................................................46 2.8.1. Hydrogen Bonding....................................................................................................................................47 2.8.2. Van der WaalsForces...............................................................................................................................47 2.8.3. Chain Entanglement.................................................................................................................................48 2.9. General Classifications.........................................................................................................................................48 2.9.1. Molecular Weight.....................................................................................................................................48 2.9.2. Thermosetsvs. Thermoplastics................................................................................................................49 2.9.3. Crystallinevs. Amorphous.......................................................................................................................49 2.9.4. Orientation................................................................................................................................................50 2.10. PlasticCompositions............................................................................................................................................50 2.10.1. Polymer Blends.......................................................................................................................................50 2.10.2. Elastomers...............................................................................................................................................51 2.10.3. Additives.................................................................................................................................................51 2.10.3.1. Fillers,Reinforcement,Composites......................................................................................51 2.10.3.2. CombustionModifiers, Fire, Flame Retardants, and Smoke Suppressants.........................52 2.10.3.3. ReleaseAgents......................................................................................................................52 2.10.3.4. Slip Additives/InternalLubricants........................................................................................53 2.10.3.5. Antiblock Additives..............................................................................................................53 2.10.3.6. Catalysts................................................................................................................................53 2.10.3.7. Impact Modifiers and Tougheners........................................................................................54 2.10.3.8. Radiation Stabilizers.............................................................................................................54 2.10.3.9. Optical Brighteners...............................................................................................................54 2.10.3.10. Plasticizers.............................................................................................................................54 C vii ONTENTS 2.10.3.11. Pigments,Extenders, Dyes,and Mica..................................................................................55 2.10.3.12. Coupling Agents....................................................................................................................55 2.10.3.13. Thermal Stabilizers...............................................................................................................55 2.10.3.14. Antistats.................................................................................................................................55 2.11. Summary..............................................................................................................................................................55 References......................................................................................................................................................................55 3. Introduction tothe Physical, Mechanical,and ThermalProperties ofPlastics and Elastomers.......................57 3.1. Physical Property Testing......................................................................................................................................57 3.1.1. SpecificGravityor Density........................................................................................................................57 3.1.2. Appearance: Color, Haze, andGloss.........................................................................................................58 3.1.2.1. Color.............................................................................................................................................58 3.1.2.2. Gloss Measurement......................................................................................................................59 3.1.2.3. HazeMeasurement.......................................................................................................................61 3.1.2.4. Yellowness Index..........................................................................................................................61 3.2. Mechanical Testing ofPlastics..............................................................................................................................62 3.2.1. Tensile Properties.......................................................................................................................................64 3.2.2. Rigidity of Plastics Materials.....................................................................................................................67 3.2.3. Shear Properties..........................................................................................................................................68 3.2.4. FlexuralProperties......................................................................................................................................70 3.2.5. Puncture andImpact Properties.................................................................................................................70 3.2.5.1. High-Speed Puncture Test............................................................................................................71 3.2.5.2. DropDartImpact Test for Plastics Film.....................................................................................72 3.2.5.3. Izod Impact Strength andCharpyImpact Strength.....................................................................73 3.2.5.4. Gardner andFallingDart Impact Strength..................................................................................73 3.2.6. Tear Properties............................................................................................................................................75 3.2.6.1. Elmendorf Tear Strength..............................................................................................................75 3.2.6.2. TrouserTear Resistance...............................................................................................................76 3.2.7. Toughness...................................................................................................................................................76 3.3. Thermal PropertyTestingofPlastics....................................................................................................................77 3.3.1. Melt Flow Index.........................................................................................................................................77 3.3.2. Heat Deflection Temperature......................................................................................................................79 3.3.3. VicatSofteningTemperature......................................................................................................................79 3.3.4. Melting Point (Tm)......................................................................................................................................80 3.3.5. Glass Transition Temperature (Tg).............................................................................................................80 3.3.5.1. Mechanical Methodsof Estimating T ........................................................................................81 g 3.3.5.2. Thermal Mechanical Analysis.....................................................................................................81 3.3.5.3. Thermal Methods ofEstimating T .............................................................................................82 g References......................................................................................................................................................................84 4. Styrenic Plastics...........................................................................................................................................................85 4.1. AcrylonitrileeButadieneeStyrene Copolymer.....................................................................................................85 4.2. MethacrylateeAcrylonitrileeButadieneeStyrene Copolymer.............................................................................92 4.3. Polystyrene.............................................................................................................................................................92 4.3.1. General-Purposeor Crystal Polystyrene....................................................................................................92 4.3.2. High-HeatCrystal Polystyrene.................................................................................................................103 4.3.3. Syndiotactic Polystyrene..........................................................................................................................103 4.3.4. High-Impact Polystyrene..........................................................................................................................103 4.4. SAN Copolymer...................................................................................................................................................103 4.5. StyreneeButadiene Copolymers.........................................................................................................................110 References....................................................................................................................................................................132 5. Polyesters....................................................................................................................................................................133 5.1. Liquid CrystallinePolymers................................................................................................................................133 5.2. PolybutyleneTerephthalate..................................................................................................................................135 viii C ONTENTS 5.3. Polycarbonate.......................................................................................................................................................135 5.4. Polyethylene Terephthalate..................................................................................................................................140 5.5. Polycyclohexylene-Dimethylene Terephthalate..................................................................................................141 5.6. Copolyesters.........................................................................................................................................................159 5.7. Polyethylene Naphthalate....................................................................................................................................166 5.8. Polyphthalate Carbonate......................................................................................................................................167 References....................................................................................................................................................................167 6. Polyimides...................................................................................................................................................................169 6.1. Polyamide-Imide..................................................................................................................................................169 6.2. Polyetherimide.....................................................................................................................................................170 6.3. Polyimide.............................................................................................................................................................174 References....................................................................................................................................................................182 7. Polyamides (Nylons)...................................................................................................................................................183 7.1. Polyamide 6(Nylon 6)........................................................................................................................................184 7.2. Polyamide 11(Nylon 11)....................................................................................................................................185 7.3. Polyamide 12(Nylon 12)....................................................................................................................................187 7.4. Polyamide 66(Nylon 66)....................................................................................................................................188 7.5. Polyarylamide......................................................................................................................................................188 7.6. Copolymers/Terpolymers.....................................................................................................................................192 References....................................................................................................................................................................198 8. Polyolefins...................................................................................................................................................................201 8.1. Polyethylene.........................................................................................................................................................201 8.1.1. Ultra Low-Densitypolyethylene..............................................................................................................202 8.1.2. LinearLow-DensityPolyethylene............................................................................................................202 8.1.3. Low-DensityPolyethylene (LDPE).........................................................................................................203 8.1.4. High-Density Polyethylene.......................................................................................................................203 8.1.5. Ultrahigh Molecular WeightPolyethylene...............................................................................................213 8.2. Polypropylene............................................... .......................................................................................................215 8.3. Poly-4-Methyl-1-Pentene.....................................................................................................................................221 8.4. CyclicOlefin Copolymer.....................................................................................................................................225 8.5. Plastomer..............................................................................................................................................................225 References....................................................................................................................................................................226 9. Polyvinyls and Acrylics.............................................................................................................................................227 9.1. EthyleneeVinyl Acetate Copolymer...................................................................................................................227 9.2. EthyleneeVinyl Alcohol Copolymer..................................................................................................................228 9.3. PolyvinylChloride...............................................................................................................................................231 9.4. PolyvinylideneChloride......................................................................................................................................234 9.5. Polyacrylics..........................................................................................................................................................239 9.5.1. Homopolymer...........................................................................................................................................240 9.5.2. Acrylic Copolymer...................................................................................................................................240 9.5.3. Acrylic Terpolymer...................................................................................................................................240 9.6. AcrylonitrileeMethyl Acrylate Copolymer........................................................................................................253 9.7. Ionomers...............................................................................................................................................................253 References....................................................................................................................................................................258 10. Fluoropolymers...........................................................................................................................................................261 10.1. Polytetrafluoroethylene.......................................................................................................................................262 10.2. Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene.........................................................................................................................264 10.3. Perfluoroalkoxy...................................................................................................................................................265 10.3.1. PFA.........................................................................................................................................................267 10.3.2. MFA.......................................................................................................................................................268 10.4. AmorphousFluoropolymere TeflonAF(cid:1)........................................................................................................268 C ix ONTENTS 10.5. PolyvinylFluoride..............................................................................................................................................269 10.6. Polychlorotrifluoroethylene................................................................................................................................270 10.7. Polyvinylidene Fluoride......................................................................................................................................271 10.8. EthyleneeTetrafluoroethyleneCopolymer.........................................................................................................274 10.9. EthyleneeChlorotrifluoroethylene Copolymer..................................................................................................275 References.....................................................................................................................................................................276 11. High-Temperature/High-Performance Polymers....................................................................................................277 11.1. PolyetherEther Ketone.......................................................................................................................................277 11.2. Polyaryletherketone............................................................................................................................................277 11.3. Polyphenylene Sulfide........................................................................................................................................282 11.4. Polysulfone..........................................................................................................................................................284 11.5. Polyphenylsulfone...............................................................................................................................................285 11.6. Polyethersulfone..................................................................................................................................................292 11.7. Parylene (Poly(p-Xylylene))...............................................................................................................................296 11.8. Polyoxymethylene (Acetal Homopolymer)/PolyoxymethyleneCopolymer (Acetal Copolymer)....................300 11.9. Self-Reinforced Polymers...................................................................................................................................301 References.....................................................................................................................................................................304 12. Renewable Resourceand Biodegradable Polymers................................................................................................305 12.1. Polyanhydrides....................................................................................................................................................309 12.2. Cellophane(cid:3).......................................................................................................................................................309 12.3. Nitrocellulose......................................................................................................................................................310 12.4. Ethyl Cellulose(Hydroxyethylcellulose)...........................................................................................................311 12.5. Polycaprolactone.................................................................................................................................................311 12.6. PolyLactic Acid (PLA)and Poly L-Lactic Acid (PLLA).................................................................................311 12.7. Poly-3-Hydroxybutyrate.....................................................................................................................................313 12.8. Polyglycolic Acid...............................................................................................................................................315 References.....................................................................................................................................................................317 13. Elastomers............................................................. ......................................................................................................319 13.1. Thermoplastic PolyetherBlock PolyamideElastomers (TPA-ETorPEBA)....................................................320 13.2. Thermoplastic CopolyesterElastomers(TPC-Eor COPE)...............................................................................320 13.3. Olefinic Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPO).........................................................................................................322 13.4. Styrenic Block Copolymer Thermoplastic Elastomers(TPS)...........................................................................325 13.5. Thermoplastic Polyurethane Elastomers (TPU).................................................................................................331 13.6. Polysiloxane/Silicone Rubber.............................................................................................................................339 References.....................................................................................................................................................................352 Index...................................................................................................................................................................................355

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