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Galen A. Foresman, Peter S. Fosl, and Jamie Carlin Watson CThRITe ICAL THINKING Th e CRITICAL THINKING THE TOOLKIT GALEN A.FORESMAN,PETER S.FOSL,AND JAMIE C.WATSON CRITICAL THINKING THE TOOLKIT Thiseditionfirstpublished2017 ©2017JohnWiley&Sons,Inc. RegisteredOffice JohnWiley&SonsLtd,TheAtrium,SouthernGate,Chichester,WestSussex,PO198SQ,UK EditorialOffices 350MainStreet,Malden,MA02148-5020,USA 9600GarsingtonRoad,Oxford,OX42DQ,UK TheAtrium,SouthernGate,Chichester,WestSussex,PO198SQ,UK Fordetailsofourglobaleditorialoffices,forcustomerservices,andforinformationabouthowto applyforpermissiontoreusethecopyrightmaterialinthisbookpleaseseeourwebsiteat www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. TherightofGalenA.Foresman,PeterS.Fosl,andJamieC.Watsontobeidentifiedastheauthors ofthisworkhasbeenassertedinaccordancewiththeUKCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988. Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,or transmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingor otherwise,exceptaspermittedbytheUKCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988,withoutthe priorpermissionofthepublisher. Wileyalsopublishesitsbooksinavarietyofelectronicformats.Somecontentthatappearsinprint maynotbeavailableinelectronicbooks. Designationsusedbycompaniestodistinguishtheirproductsareoftenclaimedastrademarks.All brandnamesandproductnamesusedinthisbookaretradenames,servicemarks,trademarksor registeredtrademarksoftheirrespectiveowners.Thepublisherisnotassociatedwithanyproduct orvendormentionedinthisbook. LimitofLiability/DisclaimerofWarranty:Whilethepublisherandauthorshaveusedtheirbest effortsinpreparingthisbook,theymakenorepresentationsorwarrantieswithrespecttothe accuracyorcompletenessofthecontentsofthisbookandspecificallydisclaimanyimplied warrantiesofmerchantabilityorfitnessforaparticularpurpose.Itissoldontheunderstandingthat thepublisherisnotengagedinrenderingprofessionalservicesandneitherthepublishernorthe authorshallbeliablefordamagesarisingherefrom.Ifprofessionaladviceorotherexpertassistance isrequired,theservicesofacompetentprofessionalshouldbesought. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Names:Foresman,GalenA.,author. Title:Thecriticalthinkingtoolkit/GalenA.Foresman,PeterS.Fosl,andJamieC.Watson. Description:Hoboken:Wiley,2016.|Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. Identifiers:LCCN2016006532(print)|LCCN2016012956(ebook)|ISBN9780470659960(cloth)| ISBN9780470658697(pbk.)|ISBN9781118982020(pdf)|ISBN9781118981993(epub) Subjects:LCSH:Reasoning.|Criticalthinking.|Logic. Classification:LCCBC177.F672016(print)|LCCBC177(ebook)|DDC160–dc23 LCrecordavailableathttp://lccn.loc.gov/2016006532 AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary. Coverimage:Getty/©LisaQuarfoth Setin10/12ptMinionProbyAptaraInc.,NewDelhi,India 1 2017 ToourstudentsandtotheLogos Contents Acknowledgments xv Introduction  TheVeryIdeaofCriticalThinking 1 Criticalthinkingintheformalandempiricalsciences 2 Criticalthinking,criticaltheory,andcriticalpolitics 4 Criticalthinking,finitude,andself-understanding 5 Usingthisbook 5  BasicToolsforCriticalThinkingaboutArguments  1.1 Claims 7 Beliefsandopinions 8 Simpleandcomplexclaims 9 Truthfunctionality 10 1.2 Arguments 11 Logicvs.eristics 12 Argumentsvs.explanations 12 1.3 Premises 13 Enthymemes 14 Identifyingpremises 14 1.4 Conclusions 16 Argumentstructure 16 Simpleandcomplexarguments 16 Identifyingconclusions 17  MoreToolsforCriticalThinkingaboutArguments  2.1 DeductiveandInductiveArguments 19 Deduction 20 Induction 21 2.2 ConditionalClaims 22 Necessaryandsufficientconditions 23 Biconditionalclaims 25 viii CONTENTS 2.3 ClassifyingandComparingClaims 26 Comparingclaims 26 Classifyingsingleclaims 28 2.4 ClaimsandDefinitions 29 Lexical,stipulative,ostensive,andnegativedefinition 30 Extensionandintension 30 Genericsimilaritiesandspecificdifferences 31 Definiensanddefiniendum 31 2.5 TheCriticalThinker’s“TwoStep”:ValidityandSoundness/ CogencyandStrength 32 Structurebeforetruth 33 2.6 ShowingInvaliditybyCounterexample 35  ToolsforDeductiveReasoningwithCategories  3.1 ThinkingCategorically 39 Typesandtokens 39 3.2 CategoricalLogic 40 Quality,quantity,andstandardform 40 Venndiagramsandthemeaningofcategoricalclaims 42 Distributionanditsimplications 44 Existentialimport 45 3.3 TranslatingEnglishClaimstoStandardForm 46 Implicitquantifiers 46 Individuals 47 Gettingtheverbright 47 Adverbials 48 Trustyourinstincts 50 Acaveat 50 3.4 FormalDeductionwithCategories:ImmediateInferences 50 Equivalences 51 Conversion 52 Contraposition 53 Obversion 56 TheAristotelianandBooleanSquaresofOpposition 58 3.5 FormalDeductionwithCategories:Syllogisms 63 Categoricalsyllogisms 64 Majorandminorterms 64 Moodandfigure 65 TheVenndiagramtestforvalidity 66 Fiveeasyrulesforevaluatingcategoricalsyllogisms 69 Genslerstartest 70  ToolsforDeductiveReasoningwithClaims  4.1 Propositionalvs.CategoricalLogics 72 Translatingclaimsintopropositionallogic 73