The Cambridge dictionary of scientists

440 Pages·2002·22.7 MB·English

by  David Millar

the cambridge
dictionary of
SCIENTISTS
second edition
the cambridge
dictionary of
SCIENTISTS
second edition
David, Ian, John & Margaret Millar
  
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo
Cambridge University Press
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© David Millar, Ian Millar, John Millar, Margaret Millar 1996, 2002
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Contents
List of Panels vi
About the Authors viii
Preface to the Second Edition ix
Preface to the First Edition x
Symbols and Conventions xi
A–Z Dictionary 1
Chronology 390
Nobel Prizewinners in Science 408
Winners of the Fields Medal
for Mathematics 412
Index 413
v
Panels
The exploration of space 13
Global warming 16
Napoleon and science 35
The entry of women into astronomy 61
The exploration of Australia 75
The history of astronomy 78
Telescopes 95
The history of nuclear and particle physics 107
Pheromones 116
The history of mathematics 121
The Darwin/Wedgwood/Galton relationships 135
Mnemonics 147
The geological timescale 148
Science and the First World War (1914–18) 153
The history of medicine 162
Scientific societies 180
The entry of women into medicine 192
The different forms of carbon 208
The quest for human origins 218
A history of agriculture in the developed world 224
Chaos 231
Superheavy chemical elements: a limit to the
periodic table? 239
Periodic table of the chemical elements 249
The history of genetics 251
AIDS and HIV 260
Long-range communication 262
Science and the Second World War (1939–45) 276
The history of the heat engine 278
A strange biochemical: nitric oxide 295
Antarctica: the continent for science 307
The entry of women into chemistry in Britain 329
The entry of women into the biological sciences 334
vi
List of panels
The development of photography 342
The Internet and international scientific
collaboration 350
The origin of life on Earth: an unsolved problem 357
The development of the computer 363
Human inherited disease and the Human
Genome Project 368
The history of aeronautics 384
vii
About the Authors
The authors share a common interest in science. Their individual scientific interests cover
astronomy, biochemistry, chemistry, geology, geophysics, mathematics, physics and
women in science, and between them they have authored over 90 research papers and five
books on scientific topics. As a family they have collaborated on several writing projects, of
which this is the latest.
David Millarhas carried out research into John Millargraduated from Trinity College,
the flow of polar ice sheets at the Scott Polar Cambridge, has a doctorate in mathematics
Research Institute, Cambridge, and in Ant- from Imperial College, London, and is a
arctica. He has also written on a range of sci- Fellow of the Institution of Electrical
ence and technology topics, and edited a Engineers. Working for BP he developed
study of the politics of the Antarctic. His pro- new geophysical techniques and went on to
fessional career has been spent in the oil be managing director of a small company
industry, principally in the marketing of founded to develop these further. More
geoscience software. He lives in France. recently he has joined Innogy (a member of
the RWE Group).
Ian Millaris Professor Emeritus of Organic
Chemistry and former Deputy Vice-Chan- Margaret Millar worked as a computor in
cellor of Keele University, and previously X-ray crystallography at the Cavendish
conducted research at McGill University, Laboratory, Cambridge, in the period when
Montreal, and the University of Cambridge, the work on the DNA double helix was being
mainly on the chemistry of the reactive conducted there. She worked in the Depart-
and toxic compounds of phosphorus and ments of Earth Science and Astronomy at
arsenic. His publications include The Organic Sheffield and Cambridge, and has a special
Chemistry of Nitrogen and Co-ordination interest in the women pioneers of science
Chemistry: Experimental Methods. and medicine.
viii
Preface to the Second Edition
In preparing this new edition, we have been best-known work was undertaken, and scien-
concerned to update earlier material in the tists now living have assisted in this when
light of advances made since 1996, and to providing portraits. All other illustrations,
correct the happily few factual errors found excluding diagrams, were provided by
in the old edition. Biographies of over 100 Science Photo Library except where otherwise
further scientists have been included bring- credited. Best efforts have been made to locate
ing the total to nearly 1500 scientists from original copyright holders where possible.
40 countries, covering every continent. New We are hugely grateful for the help given
panels have been added to highlight some to us by colleagues at the University of Keele,
selected areas of rising interest. A major by Kevin Taylor and his fellow officers of
change is the inclusion of portraits of many Cambridge University Press, and by Sukie
scientists. Where possible we have used por- Hunter whose work on the first edition has
traits of people made at the age when their also improved its successor.
ix
Preface to the First Edition
The central objective of The Cambridge telescopes, microscopes and spectroscopes in
Dictionary of Scientistsis to survey the sciences various forms are notable examples. In some
through the lives of the men and women cases the discoverer is not known with any
whose efforts have shaped modern science. certainty and a sort of group awareness of an
Our focus is on chemical, physical, biological, idea or device occurred rather than an isolat-
earth and space science and also on the linked ed individual discovery. A related situation
areas of mathematics, medicine and tech- has increasingly been seen with large teams
nology. The major outlines of all these disci- working in high-cost ‘big science’ projects
plines had been drawn by early in the present whose success is collective rather than
century, but much of the work we describe individual.
has been done since then, with a large part of The foundation of this book lies with our
it developing at the interfaces between older Concise Dictionary of Scientists written for
subject areas; in this way newer areas such Chambers/Cambridge in 1989 and now out of
as computer science or molecular biology or print. The new book covers many more scien-
astronautics have been created relatively tists (some 1300 from 38 countries) and older
recently. entries have been revised, up-dated and
The people profiled in this book are fre- extended. In addition, 32 ‘panels’ give sum-
quently associated, often by name, with scien- marizing accounts of major areas and some
tific units, effects and laws or with chemical selected topics of current interest. In response
reactions, diseases and methods, and we have to increasing interest in women’s scientific
described these. Science before the First contributions some 70 pioneer women in
World War was dominated by the work of science have been added, with the story of their
northern European males. It is often assumed entry into the sciences described in panels.
that, apart from Marie Curie, there were no The sources of information have been too
women scientists, or women interested in sci- many and varied to be listed usefully in much
ence, in the 18th, 19th and even early 20th detail. Our interest in scientists’ lives and per-
centuries. The story of the struggle by women sonalities began partly with a study of auto-
to gain access to libraries, lectures, scientific biographical writing by scientists; there is
societies, education and careers in science more of this than might be expected, not only
perhaps needs to be told in more detail – but as books but as articles, Nobel Prize lectures,
elsewhere. Here we have included an account and interviews by us or recorded in print or on
of the work and lives of those women who radio and TV. Living scientists have in many
cleared the path towards these objectives. The cases been able to check our accounts and we
scientific work of some was modest, but their are grateful to them for doing so. Many
pioneering was important. The contributions biographies have been studied; they exist in
of others were significant but, at a time when great profusion for the dozen or so best-
their exclusion from scientific societies and known scientists. The Dictionary of Scientific
similar opportunities for publication was con- Biography (editor-in-chief, C C Gillispie, pub-
ventional, their work was only acceptable lished by Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York,
with that of their fathers, brothers and 1970–80, 14 vols and two supplements) has
husbands. been much consulted, as have the Biographical
As well as ideas, certain devices have been Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, Notes and
the key to advance in many areas of science: Records of the Royal Society, and the Nobel Lectures.
x