The Biophysical Foundations Human of Movement I8S \ The Biophysical Foundations Human of Movement Dedication To all those scholars, past and present, who have contributed to the academic credibility of the study of human movement. The Biophysical Foundations Human of Movement Bruce Aberneth) Vaughan Kippers Laurel Traeger Mackinnon Robert Neal .1. Stephanie Hanrahan The I niversityofQueensland, fustralia tf& V^ HUMAN KINETICS . LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-Publication Data Thebiophysical foundationsofhuman movement/BruceAbernethy . . letal.]. p. cm. Includes bibliographical referencesand index. ISBN0-88011-732-X 1. Human mechanics. 2. Biophysics. I. Abernethy, Bruce, 1958- QP303.B586 1997 96-50009 612.7'6-dc21 CIP ISBN: 0-88011-732-X Copyright© 1996, 1997 byA.B. Abernethy, L.T. Mackinnon, R.J. Neal, V. Kippers, andS.J. Hanrahan All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization ofthis work in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photo- copying, and recording, and in any information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permissionofthepublisher. FirstpublishedinAustraliain 1996by MacmillanEducationAustraliaof 107 Moray Street, South Melbourne, Victoria3205. (ISBN0-7329-3048-0, paper; ISBN0-7329-3047-2,cloth) This international versionpublished in 1997 by Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc. Managing Editor: Lynn M. Hooper; Text and Cover Designer: Jan Schmoeger; Typesetting: Typeset Gallery, Malaysia; Indexer: Kathleen Gray; Printer: UnitedGraphics 1098765432 Printed inthe UnitedStates Human Kinetics Web site: http:/www.humankinetics.com/ UnitedStates: Human Kinetics, P.O. 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Auckland 1 (09)523 3462 e-mail humank<9 hkne\w com 1 Contents Preface vii Part 1 Introduction to human movement studies 2 1 Human movement studies as a discipline and a profession J 2 Historical origins of the academic study of human movement 14 Further reading 28 Part 2 The biophysical subdisciplines of human movement 30 Section 1 Anatomical bases of human movement: The rabdiscipline of functional anatomy 31 Introduction 3 Basic concepts of the musculoskeletal system Yf 4 Basic concepts of anthropometry 5 Musculoskeletal changes throughout the lifespan 6 Musculoskeletal adaptations to training 91 Further reading 103 Section 2 Mechanical bases of human movement: The subdisciplinc ol biomechanics 105 Introduction 106 7 Basic concepts of kinetics l in Ml B Basicconcepts of kinematics 9 Basic concepts ofenergetics 146 10 BiomechanicaJ changes throughout the lifespan 156 1 Biomechanical adaptations to training 169 Further reading 79 1 section l Physiological bases ol human movement: The rabdiscipline of exercise physfolog] 181 Introduction I 2 Basic concepts of exercise metabolism 6 CONT1\ 1S 13 Physiological adaptations to training 210 14 Changes in physiological capacity and performance throughout the lifespan 231 15 Applications of exercise physiology to health 246 Further reading 262 Section 4 Neural bases of human movement: The subdiscipline of motor control 263 Introduction 264 16 Basic concepts of motor control: Neurophysiological perspectives 269 17 Basic concepts of motor control: Psychological perspectives 295 18 Motor control changes throughout the lifespan 312 19 Motor control adaptations to training 334 Further reading 353 Section 5 Psychological bases of human movement: The subdiscipline of sport and exercise psychology 355 Introduction 356 20 Basic concepts of sport psychology 359 21 Basic concepts of exercise psychology 371 22 Physical activity and psychological factors across the lifespan 380 23 Psychological adaptations to training 386 Further reading 392 Part 3 Multidisciplinary and crossdisciplinary approaches to human movement 394 24 Integrative perspectives 395 Glossary 405 Index 4 1 VI 1 Preface Knowledge about the biophysical foundations • provide an overview ot the multidimensional of human movement is important for a number changes in movement and movement poten- of reasons. A thorough understanding of human tial that occur throughout the lifespan with movement is fundamental to professional prac- the processes ot growth, development, matu- tice in a range of fields such as exercise and ration and ageing sport science, physical education, medicine, • provide an overview of the multidimensional physiotherapy, occupational therapy, musing, changes in movement and movement poten- and other rehabilitation and health-science tial that occur as an adaptation to training, professions. Furthermore, the study of human practice And other lifestyle factors movement is also of value in itself as a means Fulfilling the first purpose involves consider- of examining key biological phenomena such as ation of the biophysical dimensions of the field maturation, adaptation and the interactions ot study known variously as human movement between hereditary- and environmental factors, studies, human movement kinesiol which underpin growth and development. or sport and and examination Despite the central importance of movement. of the discipline profession links in this field in an applied sense, to professional preparation Gaining an overview of the structure of the in the health sciences and, in a basic sense, to athne uinndterrosdtuacntdoriyng osfubhjeucmtanonbioltohgey, biinoptheyascihcianlg cHoeulrdseissesipnecihalulmyainmpomrotvanetmetnottstsutduednitesstaaksing.1 means of providing .\n entice to more detailed foundations of human movement we have been studv within one Of more of the BubdiSCiplines dsuurcptroirsyedteaxttbtohoek atbosCeOnVceet otfhisa fsiueiltdabTlheisintterxot- ot human movement studies and as .1 means of laying the foundations foi integrative, multi- was written in an attempt to redress that disciplinary ami crossdisciplinary stud; shortfall. Fulfilling the second and thud purposes is menTthewBaisopwhryistitceanl FwoiutnhdatthireoensmoatinHupmuarpnosMeos in important as .1 means ot exposing readers to fundamental issues in biology itself and in mind, namely positioning the studv ot movement as maim .1 • provide An introduction to key concepts (-on topk withm human biol< have deliber- Cerning the anatomical, mechanical ph\ ately sei ItJOfl logical, neural and psychological bases ot as key organising themes tor this book because human movement ot then centrality to biology itself Gaining VI PREFACE knowledge about the processes of growth, dev- predict the functioning and 'behaviour' of the elopment, maturation and ageing aids under- human 'motor vehicle'. The scientist attempt- standing of the key changes in movement ing to understand the human body and its poten- potential throughout the lifespan that, because tial for movement is faced with synthesising of their inevitability, impact directly on all of some of the same general classes of knowledge us. Although the processes of maturation and that the automotive engineer needs in order to ageing are inevitable, adaptation (through understand an inanimate motor vehicle and its training, practice and lifestyle decisions) offers potential for movement. To understand and humans some degree of control of their own optimise the performance of a motor vehicle destiny and capabilities. It is our sincere hope the automotive engineer needs specific know- that the clear message about the important role ledge about the vehicle's material structure physical activity plays in the maintenance of (its anatomical basis), its mechanical design health, which arises from consideration of adap- characteristics (its mechanical basis), its motor's tation within each of the biophysical sub- capacity and fuel consumption (its physiological disciplines of human movement, will be one basis), its electrical wiring and steering mech- that readers of the text will not only take to anisms (its neural basis), and the characteristics heart themselves in making personal lifestyle and capabilities of its driver (its psychological decisions but will also communicate to others. basis). In the case of the human 'vehicle' this The Biophysical Foundations of Human information is provided by the subdisciplines Movement has been intentionally structured of functional anatomy, biomechanics, exercise into three major parts to broadly reflect its three physiology, motor control and sport and exercise main purposes. Part 1 provides a general intro- psychology and the interactions between them. duction to human movement studies as a field Within Part 2, each of the five biophysical of study. It does this by examining the disci- subdisciplines of human movement studies is plinary and professional structure of contem- discussed in a separate section, with the struc- porary human movement studies (Chapter 1) ture of each of the sections being broadly the and by providing a brief overview of the same. Each section begins with a brief intro- historical origins of the current academic field duction, which defines the subdiscipline and (Chapter 2). provides information on its historical develop- Part 2, the largest part of the book, provides ment, the typical issues and problems it an introduction to basic concepts, to lifespan addresses, the level(s) of analysis it uses and changes, and to adaptations arising in response relevant professional training and organisations. to training, within each of the five major bio- This introduction is then followed by a number physical subdisciplines of human movement. of chapters that overview the basic concepts These are the subdisciplines of functional anat- within each ot the subdisciplines and is then omy, biomechanics, exercise physiology, motor followed by separate chapters devoted to con- control and sport and exercise psychology. sideration ot lifespan changes and adaptation. These subdisciplines represent respectively the The exercise physiolog) section also contains anatomical, mechanical, physiological, neural an additional chapter devoted to specific appli- and psychological bases of human movement cations ot fundamental principles ot exercise It a erode analogy was drawn between the physiology to health. human body and .1 motor vehicle [erode in the Part i ot the hook is devoted to multi- sense thai the analogy would grossly under- disciplinary and crossdisciplinary approaches to estimate the complexity, dynamics and adaptive human movement and provides some examples potential of the human machine] then the ot contemporary issues m which the application v.mous biophysical Bubdisciplines recognised and integration ot knowledge from a numbei ot within hum.m movement studies have reason the biophysical subdisciplines .ne fundamental able analogues in terms of the minimal to understanding The material presented in 'clusters' of knowledge needed to explain and this part ot the text is designed to demonstrate \ in