Telecom Power Systems

437 Pages·2017·41.047 MB·English

by  Dorin O. Neacșu

Telecom Power Systems

Telecom Power Systems
Dorin O. Neacsu
,
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Contents
Preface ...................................................................................................................xiii
Author ..................................................................................................................xvii
1. Power System Architecture for Telecommunications Applications ....1
1.1 Context ....................................................................................................1
1.2 Example of Architecture for a Telecommunications
Application ......................................................................................4
1.2.1 Role of and Requirements for Rectifier .................................5
1.2.2 Role of and Requirements for High-Power Isolated
Direct Current/Direct Current Converter ............................5
1.2.3 Role of and Requirements for Isolated Converter
(‘Brick’ Converter) ....................................................................6
1.2.4 Role of and Requirements for Point-of-Load Direct
Current/Direct Current Converters ......................................8
1.3 What Is Specific to Power Converters? Switched-Mode
Operation..............................................................................................10
1.4 What Is Specific to Power Converters? Installed Power ................12
1.5 System Architecture Concepts ..........................................................12
1.6 Rack Usage within Data and Telecom Centres ...............................14
1.7 Considerations for Power Systems within a Data or Telecom
Centre ....................................................................................................15
1.8 Lifetime and Reliability .....................................................................18
1.9 Special Design Requirements and Software-Intensive
Control Systems ...................................................................................18
Summary .........................................................................................................20
References .......................................................................................................20
2. Power Semiconductor Devices ...................................................................23
2.1 Context ..................................................................................................23
2.2 Diodes ...................................................................................................23
2.3 Thyristors .............................................................................................26
2.4 The Ideal Switch ..................................................................................26
2.5 Switched-Mode Power Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field-
Effect Transistor ..................................................................................28
2.6 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor .....................................................29
2.7 Switching of Power Semiconductor Devices ...................................30
2.8 Power Loss and Heat Removal ..........................................................32
2.9 Gate Driver Circuits ............................................................................37
2.10 Protection of Power Semiconductor Devices ..................................39
v
vi Contents
2.11 Gate Turn-Off Devices ........................................................................41
2.12 Device Selection ..................................................................................42
Summary .........................................................................................................43
References .......................................................................................................44
3. Buck and Boost Converters .........................................................................45
3.1 The Role of Direct Current/Direct Current Power Converters ....45
3.2 Direct Conversion (without Galvanic Isolation) .............................45
3.3 Buck Converter ....................................................................................46
3.3.1 Example ...................................................................................47
3.4 Boost Converter ...................................................................................54
3.5 Other Topologies of Direct Current/Direct Current
Converters .......................................................................................58
3.6 Multiphase Converters .......................................................................60
3.7 The Synchronous Converter ..............................................................62
3.8 Selection of Passive Components ......................................................63
3.8.1 Selection of the Buck Inductor .............................................64
3.9 Control Circuits for Buck/Boost Converters ...................................67
Summary .........................................................................................................69
References .......................................................................................................70
4. Point-of-Load Converters and Their Feedback Control Systems .......73
4.1 Context ..................................................................................................73
4.2 Implementation within Analogue-Mode
Power Supply Circuits ....................................................................74
4.3 Design of Feedback Control Systems ...............................................77
4.3.1 Definitions...............................................................................77
4.3.2 Requirements for Feedback Control of a Power Supply ....80
4.3.3 Using Lead-Lag Compensators ............................................82
4.4 Case Studies: Feedback Control for Various Power Supplies .......86
4.4.1 Example 1 = Linear Circuitry, Follower (NPN Power
Transistor with Common Collector) ....................................87
4.4.2 Example 2 = Low-Dropout Voltage Stabiliser with
an Inverting Topology ...........................................................90
4.4.3 Example 3 = Switched-Mode Boost/Buck Converters .....94
4.5 Analogue-Mode Feedback Control Solutions .................................95
4.5.1 Type I Compensation ............................................................96
4.5.2 Type II Compensation ...........................................................98
4.5.3 Type III Compensation ..........................................................98
4.6 Design Process from Constraints to Component Selection ........101
4.6.1 Pole-Zero Empirical Selection Based on Converter
Model .....................................................................................101
4.6.2 Venable K-Factor Method ....................................................102
4.6.3 MATLAB Analysis of Results ............................................108
4.6.4 The Problem of Conditionally Stable Systems .................112
Contents vii
4.7 On Usage of Conventional Proportional–Integral–
Derivative Controllers ......................................................................113
4.8 Conversion of Analogue Control Law to Digital Solutions ........115
Summary .......................................................................................................119
References .....................................................................................................119
5. State-Space Control of DC/DC Converters ...........................................121
5.1 Modern versus Classical Control Methods ...................................121
5.2 State-Space Modelling ......................................................................122
5.3 Definition of Control Law with State-Space Method ...................130
5.4 Using Estimators ...............................................................................142
5.5 Change of Gains with Load and Dwell Time ...............................145
5.6 Practical Aspects: Implementation Problem .................................148
Summary .......................................................................................................149
References .....................................................................................................150
6. Isolated DC/DC Converters: Flyback, Forward and Push-Pull ........151
6.1 Role of Direct Current/Direct Current Converters with
Isolation ..............................................................................................151
6.2 Physics of the Pulse Transformer....................................................152
6.3 Flyback Converter .............................................................................156
6.3.1 Operation ..............................................................................156
6.3.2 Control ...................................................................................160
6.3.3 Multioutput Flyback Converters........................................163
6.3.4 Protection ..............................................................................163
6.3.5 Two-Switch Flyback Converter ..........................................164
6.4 Forward Converter............................................................................165
6.4.1 Operation ..............................................................................165
6.4.2 Multioutput Forward Converter with Coupled
Inductors ...............................................................................171
6.5 Forward-Flyback Converter .............................................................173
6.6 Push-Pull Converter .........................................................................176
6.7 The Need for a Closed-Loop Controller ........................................180
6.8 Feedback Control of Isolated Converters: Working
with TL431 ......................................................................................181
Summary .......................................................................................................183
References .....................................................................................................184
7. Converters with Reduced Power Loss ....................................................185
7.1 Context ................................................................................................185
7.2 Resonant Converters .........................................................................187
7.2.1 Step-Down Conversion .......................................................187
7.2.2 Step-Up Conversion .............................................................193
7.3 Phase-Shift Converters .....................................................................196
7.3.1 Operation of the Phase-Shift Converter ...........................196
viii Contents
7.3.2 Zero-Voltage Transition .......................................................201
7.3.3 Example of Integrated Circuits for Phase-Shift
Converter Control ................................................................208
7.3.4 Brick Converters Using Phase-Shift Converters .............211
7.4 LLC Converters..................................................................................211
7.4.1 Operation ..............................................................................211
7.4.1.1 Operation with Switching Frequency
above the Resonance Frequency ........................214
7.4.1.2 Operation with Switching Frequency
below the Resonance Frequency ........................216
7.5 Synchronous Rectification on Secondary Side .............................217
Summary .......................................................................................................218
References .....................................................................................................218
8. Power Management of Embedded Systems ..........................................221
8.1 Requirements for Digital Control ...................................................221
8.2 Power Control versus Digital Management of Power
Supplies .........................................................................................221
8.3 Examples of Management Functions for Power Supplies ...........224
8.3.1 Dynamic Adjustment of the Voltage Applied onto
the Intermediary Bus ...........................................................224
8.3.2 Continuous Adjustment of Voltage Control Law
Gains .................................................................................224
8.3.3 Adjustment of the Output Voltage at Point-of-Load
Converters .............................................................................225
8.3.4 Adaptive Control of Dead Time .........................................226
8.3.5 Selection of the Number of Branches within a
Multiphase Converter..........................................................227
8.4 Connectivity.......................................................................................227
8.4.1 Inter-integrated Circuit Hardware ....................................228
8.4.2 Inter-integrated Circuit Protocol .......................................228
8.4.3 Inter-integrated Circuit Software Sequence.....................230
8.4.4 Examples of Integrated Circuits with Inter-
integrated Circuit Interface ................................................231
8.5 Historical Perspective on System Management Bus ....................232
8.6 Introduction of Power Management Bus .......................................232
8.6.1 Hardware ..............................................................................232
8.6.2 Data Format and Telemetry ................................................234
8.6.3 Addressing ............................................................................236
8.6.4 Set of Commands .................................................................237
8.6.5 Voltage Setting......................................................................238
8.6.6 Fault Management ...............................................................239
8.6.7 Using Nonvolatile Memory within Integrated Circuits ....240
8.7 Methods for Power Savings in Computing Systems ....................241
8.7.1 Power Loss Components .....................................................241
Contents ix
8.7.2 Deployment of Dynamic Voltage and Frequency
Scaling Methods ...................................................................243
8.7.3 Strategies Used with Dynamic Voltage and
Frequency Scaling ................................................................244
8.7.4 Diminished Results for Dynamic Voltage and
Frequency Scaling with Multicore Processors.................245
8.7.5 Strategies for Static Power Reduction ...............................247
Summary .......................................................................................................249
References .....................................................................................................249
9. Diode Rectifiers ...........................................................................................251
9.1 Power Rectifier Usage .......................................................................251
9.2 Operation of a Single-Diode Rectifier ............................................251
9.3 Operation of a Bridge Rectifier ........................................................255
9.4 Connection Inductance Influence on the Commutation
Process ................................................................................................259
9.5 Rectifier Distortion on Grid Voltages .............................................260
9.6 Other Single-Phase Rectifiers: Alternating Current Doubler
Rectifier ...............................................................................................263
9.7 Three-Phase Rectifiers ......................................................................263
9.7.1 Midpoint Rectifier ................................................................264
9.7.2 Three-Phase Bridge Rectifiers ............................................268
Summary .......................................................................................................273
References .....................................................................................................273
10. Power Factor Correction ............................................................................275
10.1 Harmonics and Power Factor ..........................................................275
10.1.1 Sinusoidal Measures ............................................................275
10.1.2 Nonsinusoidal Waveforms .................................................276
10.2 Power Factor Improvement ..............................................................278
10.3 Peak Current Control ........................................................................278
10.4 Hysteresis Control and Variable Pulse Frequency .......................284
10.5 Control with Current Compensation .............................................284
10.6 Assessment of Results ......................................................................286
10.6.1 Comparison between the Three Control Methods .........286
10.6.2 Control with Fixed Duty Cycle, Open Loop ....................288
10.6.3 Compensation Method with Second
Harmonic Injection ..............................................................288
10.6.4 Discontinuous Conduction Mode versus Continuous
Conduction Mode Power Factor Correction with
Boundary Control ................................................................290
10.7 Three-Phase Circuit for Unity Power Factor .................................292
10.8 Power Factor Control ........................................................................294
Summary .......................................................................................................296
References .....................................................................................................297