System Integration: From Transistor Design to Large Scale Integrated Circuits

513 Pages·2004·15.2 MB·English

by  Kurt Hoffmann

System Integration
From Transistor Design to Large
Scale Integrated Circuits
Kurt Hoffmann
University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Germany

System Integration

System Integration
From Transistor Design to Large
Scale Integrated Circuits
Kurt Hoffmann
University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Germany
Copyright(cid:1)2004 JohnWiley&SonsLtd,TheAtrium,SouthernGate,Chichester,
WestSussexPO198SQ,England
Telephone (þ44)1243779777
Email(forordersandcustomerserviceenquiries):[e-mail]
VisitourHomePageonwww.wileyeurope.comorwww.wiley.com
AllRightsReserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemor
transmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,scanningor
otherwise,exceptunderthetermsoftheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988orunderthetermsof
alicenceissuedbytheCopyrightLicensingAgencyLtd,90TottenhamCourtRoad,LondonW1T4LP,
UK,withoutthepermissioninwritingofthePublisher.RequeststothePublishershouldbeaddressed
tothePermissionsDepartment,JohnWiley&SonsLtd,TheAtrium,SouthernGate,Chichester,West
SussexPO198SQ,England,[e-mail],orfaxedto(þ44)1243770620.
Thispublicationisdesignedtoprovideaccurateandauthoritativeinformationinregardtothesubject
mattercovered.ItissoldontheunderstandingthatthePublisherisnotengagedinrendering
professionalservices.Ifprofessionaladviceorotherexpertassistanceisrequired,theservicesofa
competentprofessionalshouldbesought.
OtherWileyEditorialOffices
JohnWiley&SonsInc.,111RiverStreet,Hoboken,NJ07030,USA
Jossey-Bass,989MarketStreet,SanFrancisco,CA94103-1741,USA
Wiley-VCHVerlagGmbH,Boschstr.12,D-69469Weinheim,Germany
JohnWiley&SonsAustraliaLtd,33ParkRoad,Milton,Queensland4064,Australia
JohnWiley&Sons(Asia)PteLtd,2ClementiLoop#02-01,JinXingDistripark,Singapore129809
JohnWiley&SonsCanadaLtd,22WorcesterRoad,Etobicoke,Ontario,CanadaM9W1L1
Wileyalsopublishesitsbooksinavarietyofelectronicformats.Somecontentthatappearsinprintmay
notbeavailableinelectronicbooks.
BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
ISBN0-470-85407-3
Typesetin10/12ptTimesbyIntegraSoftwareServicesPvt.Ltd,Pondicherry,India
PrintedandboundinGreatBritainbyAntonyRoweLtd,Chippenham,Wiltshire
Thisbookisprintedonacid-freepaperresponsiblymanufacturedfromsustainableforestry
inwhichatleasttwotreesareplantedforeachoneusedforpaperproduction.
Contents
Preface xi
Acknowledgments xiii
PhysicalConstants and Conversion Factors xv
Symbols xvii
1 Semiconductor Physics 1
1.1 Band Theory ofSolids 1
1.2 Doped Semiconductor 5
1.3 Semiconductor in Equilibrium 7
1.3.1 Fermi–Dirac Distribution Function 7
1.3.2 Carrier Concentrationat Equilibrium 10
1.3.3 Density ProductatEquilibrium 11
1.3.4 Relationshipbetween Energy, Voltage, and Electrical Field 15
1.4 Charge Transport 17
1.4.1 Drift Velocity 17
1.4.2 Drift Current 19
1.4.3 Diffusion Current 21
1.4.4 ContinuityEquation 23
1.5 Non-Equilibrium Conditions 24
Problems 32
References 34
Further Reading 34
2 pn-Junction 35
2.1 Inhomogeneously Doped n-type Semiconductor 35
2.2 pn-Junction atEquilibrium 38
2.3 Biased pn-Junction 40
2.3.1 Density ProductunderNon-Equilibrium Conditions 40
2.3.2 Current–Voltage Relationship 44
2.3.3 Deviation from the Current–Voltage Relationship 46
2.3.4 Voltage Reference Point 48
vi CONTENTS
2.4 Capacitance Characteristic 50
2.4.1 Depletion Capacitance 50
2.4.2 Diffusion Capacitance 55
2.5 Switching Characteristic 59
2.6 Junction Breakdown 61
2.7 Modeling thepn-Junction 64
2.7.1 Diode Modelfor CAD Applications 64
2.7.2 Diode Modelfor Static Calculations 66
2.7.3 Diode Modelfor Small-SignalCalculations 68
Problems 69
References 71
3 Bipolar Transistor 73
3.1 Bipolar Technologies 73
3.2 TransistorOperation 83
3.2.1 Current–Voltage Relationship 84
3.2.2 Transistor under ReverseBiased Condition 92
3.2.3 VoltageSaturation 93
3.2.4 TemperatureBehavior 96
3.2.5 Breakdown Behavior 97
3.3 Second-Order Effects 100
3.3.1 High CurrentEffects 100
3.3.2 Base-WidthModulation 104
3.3.3 Current Crowding 111
3.4 AlternativeTransistor Structures 113
3.5 Modeling theBipolar Transistor 116
3.5.1 Transistor Model forCADApplications 117
3.5.2 Transistor Model forStaticCalculations 122
3.5.3 Transistor Model forSmall-SignalCalculations 122
3.5.4 Transit Time Determination 126
Problems 130
References 134
Further Reading 134
4 MOS Transistor 135
4.1 CMOS Technology 135
4.2 The MOS Structure 141
4.2.1 Characteristic of the MOS Structure 142
4.2.2 Capacitance Behavior ofthe MOS Structure 145
4.2.3 Flat-Band Voltage 148
4.3 Equations ofthe MOS Structure 151
4.3.1 Charge Equations of theMOSStructure 151
4.3.2 Surface Voltageat Strong Inversion 155
4.3.3 Threshold Voltage and Body Effect 157
4.4 MOS Transistor 162
4.4.1 Current–Voltage Characteristic atStrong Inversion 162
4.4.2 ImprovedTransistor Equation 170
CONTENTS vii
4.4.3 Current–Voltage Characteristic atWeak Inversion 171
4.4.4 TemperatureBehavior 173
4.5 Second-Order Effects 177
4.5.1 Mobility Degradation 177
4.5.2 Channel LengthModulation 178
4.5.3 ShortChannelEffects 180
4.5.4 Hot Electrons 184
4.5.5 Gate-Induced Drain Leakage 185
4.5.6 Breakdown Behavior 188
4.5.7 Latch-up Effect 189
4.6 Power Devices 191
4.7 Modeling ofthe MOS Transistor 200
4.7.1 Transistor ModelforCADApplications 200
4.7.2 Transistor ModelforStatic and DynamicCalculations 208
4.7.3 Transistor ModelforSmall-SignalCalculations 210
Problems 214
AppendixA Current–Voltage Equationof the MOS Transistor
underWeakInversion Condition 218
References 223
Further Reading 225
5 BasicDigitalCMOSCircuits 227
5.1 Geometric Design Rules 227
5.2 Electrical Design Rules 233
5.3 MOS Inverter 238
5.3.1 Depletion Load Inverter 239
5.3.2 Enhancement Load Inverter 242
5.3.3 PMOS Load Inverter 244
5.3.4 CMOS Inverter 246
5.3.5 Ratioed Design Issues 252
5.4 Switching Performance ofthe Inverters 254
5.5 Buffer Stages 263
5.5.1 Super Buffer 263
5.5.2 Bootstrap Buffer 267
5.6 Input/Output Stage 269
5.6.1 InputStage 269
5.6.2 Output Stage 273
5.6.3 ESD Protection 279
Problems 282
References 285
6 Combinationaland Sequential CMOSCircuits 287
6.1 Static Combinational Circuits 287
6.1.1 Complementary Circuits 287
6.1.2 PMOS Load Circuits 292
6.1.3 Pass-Transistor Circuits 293