Sustaining Large Marine Ecosystems: The Human Dimension

355 Pages·2005·7.193 MB·3-368\355

by  Timothy M. Hennessey and Jon G. Sutinen (Eds.)

Series Editor's Introduction
The world's coastal ocean waters continue to be degraded from unsustainable fishing practices,
habitat degradation, eutrophication, toxic pollution, aerosol contamination, and emerging diseases.
Against this background is a growing recognition among world leaders that positive actions are
required on the part of governments and civil society to redress global environmental and resource
degradation with actions to recover depleted fish populations, restore degraded habitats and
reduce coastal pollution. No single international organization has been empowered to monitor
and assess the changing states of coastal ecosystems on a global scale, and to reconcile the needs
of individual nations to those of the community of nations for taking appropriate mitigation and
management actions. However, the World Summit on Sustainable Development convened in
Johannesburg in 2002 in recognition of the importance for coastal nations to move more
expeditiously toward sustainable development and use of ocean resources, declared that countries
should move to introduce ecosystem-based assessment and management practices by 2010, and
by 2015, restore the world's depleted fish stocks to maximum levels of sustainable yields. At
present, 121 developing countries are moving toward these targets in joint international projects
supported, in part, by financial grants by the Global Environment Facility in partnership with
scientific and technical assistance from UN parmer agencies (e.g. UNIDO, UNER UNDR IOC,
FAO), donor countries and institutions and non-governmental organizations including the IUCN
(World Conservation Union). Many of these projects are linked to ecosystem-based efforts
underway in Europe and North America in a concerted effort to overcome the North-South digital
divide.
The volumes in the new Elsevier series on Large Marine Ecosystems are bringing forward the
results of ecosystem-based studies for marine scientists, educators, students and resource
managers. The volumes are focused on LMEs and their productivity, fish and fisheries, pollution
and ecosystem health, socioeconomics and governance. This volume in the new series,
"Sustaining Large Marine Ecosystems: The Human Dimension," recognizes the importance of
economic activity as a driver of change in the world's LMEs.
Human Dimensions, Market Economies and the Sustainability of LMEs
This volume is the thirteenth in the Large Marine Ecosystem Series. It represents a state-of-
art-focus on the new awareness by scientists, economists, resource managers and the marine
academic community on the importance of strengthening links between science-based
assessments of the changing states of marine ecosystems and the human dimension of actions
to be taken for reversing the downward spiral of fisheries overexploitation, habitat loss, and
coastal pollution. Using the case study method, innovative insights and methods are
presented from the socioeconomic, governance, and policy perspectives of how to move
forward in halting the downward spiral and advancing toward the recovery and sustainability
of depleted fish stocks, restoration of degraded habitats, and reduction and control of pollution
within the framework of an ecosystems-based approach.
vi Series editor's introduction
The authors propose actions consistent with market driven national economies and the need to
underscore the enormous economic value of marine resources in relation to public and private
ownership scenarios, long term and short term values of resources at risk, and serious
deliberations on issues of equity with regard to allocation of resource benefits. Important policy
issues are considered that acknowledge human needs for food, shelter and livelihoods at risk from
management and governance decisions on the use of marine resources that are made daily and
that influence the nearly 50% of the world's population who, since 2001, live within 200
kilometers of the coasts of the world's 64 Large Marine Ecosystems (see www.oceanatlas.org.)
The volume addresses how ecosystem-based management in both economically developed and
developing countries can and will contribute to building the institutional capabilities to reconcile
economic activities derived from the oceans with the recovery and sustainability, of structure and
function of the natural state of Large Marine Ecosystems. The contributions have been peer
reviewed. They have been selected for inclusion in the series as a contribution toward a
continuing assessment and evaluation of the changing conditions within the World's LMEs as
scientists and ocean stewardship agencies move ahead toward ecosystem improvement targets
endorsed by world leaders at the Johannesburg Summit. Production of this volume was supported
in part by financial assistance of the United States Sea Grant Program of NOAA.
Kenneth Sherman, Series Editor
Narragansett, Rhode Island
vii
stnemegdelwonkcA
The editors are indebted to the willingness of the contributors to take time from their
normal schedules to prepare the expert syntheses and reviews that collectively serve
to move us forward toward ecosystem-based assessment and management of the
world's Large Marine Ecosystems. We are pleased to acknowledge the interest and
financial support of the Office of Sea Grant, the International Union for the
Conservation of Nature (World Conservation Union), the U.S. National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, and the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service.
This volume would not have been possible without the capable cooperation of many
people who gave unselfishly of their time and effort. We are indebted to Dr. Sally
Adams, North Scituate, Rhode Island for her extraordinary dedication, care and
expertise in technically editing and preparing the volume in camera-ready format for
publication. Also, we extend our thanks to Dr. Marie-Christine Aquarone for her
meticulous review of each of the chapters to ensure that the volume was free of any
inadvertent omissions or misrepresentations. Further, we extend thanks to our Elsevier
editors, Ms. Mara Vos-Sarmiento, Administrative Editor of Agricultural and Biological
Sciences and Dr. Christiane Barranguet, Publishing Editor for Aquatic Sciences, for their
care in the final production of this volume.
The Editors
ix
Contributors
Ronald Baird Thomas A. Grigalunas
NOAA, Sea Grant (OAR) Environmental and Natural Resource
Silver Spring, Maryland, USA Economics
Kingston Coastal Institute
Jung-Hee Cho University of Rhode Island
Korea Maritime Institute Kingston, Rhode Island USA
Seoul, KOREA
Timothy M. Hennessey
Patricia Clay Marine Affairs and Political Science
NOAA, NMFS, EASC University of Rhode Island
Silver Spring, Maryland USA Kingston, Rhode Island USA
Jerry Diamantides Porter Hoagland
David Miller and Associate: Marine Policy Center
Rochambeau .tS Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Providence, Rhode Island USA Woods Hole, Massachusetts USA
Christopher L. Dyer Di Jin
The School for Field Studies Marine Policy Center
01 Federal Street Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Salem, Massachusetts USA Woods Hole, Massachusetts USA
Alfred Duda Lawrence Juda
GEF Secretariat Marine Affairs and Political Science
Washington, District of Columbia USA University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rhode Island USA
Steven E Edwards
USDOC, NOAA, NMFS, NEFSC Andrew Kitts
Narragansett Laboratory NOAA, NMFS, NEFSC
Narragansett, Rhode Island USA Woods Hole, Massachusetts USA
Frank J. Gable Jason S. Link
NRC fellow at NEFSC NOAA, NMFS, NEFSC
Narragansett Laboratory Woods Hole, Massachusetts USA
Narragansett, Rhode Island USA
Philip Logan
John M. Gates NOAA, NMFS, NEFSC
Kingston Coastal Institute Woods Hole, Massachusetts USA
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rhode Island USA
X Contributors
Meifeng Luo
Department of Environmental and Natural Jon G Sutinen
Resource Economics Department of Environmental and Natural
Kingston Coastal Institute Resource Economics
University of Rhode Island Kingston Coastal Institute
Kingston, Rhode Island USA University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rhode Island USA
James J. Opaluch
Department of Environmental and Natural Erie M. Thunberg
Resource Economics NOAA, NMFS, NEFSC
Kingston Coastal Institute Social Sciences Branch
University of Rhode Island Woods Hole Laboratory
Kingston, Rhode Island USA Woods Hole, Massachusetts USA
John J. Poggie, .rJ Harold Upton
Department of Sociology and Anthropology Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife
University of Rhode Island Salem, Oregon USA
Kingston, Rhode Island USA
John B. Walden
Barbara .P Rountree NOAA, NMFS, NEFSC
USDOC, NOAA, NMFS Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543 USA
Northeast Fisheries Science Center
Woods Hole, Massachusetts USA Hanling Wang
Center for International Law
Kenneth Sherman Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
USDOC, NOAA, NMFS, NEFSC Hai Dian District
Narragansett Laboratory Beijing, P.R. China
Narragansett, Rhode Island USA
Dong-Sik Woo
Mark Soboil Department of Environmental and Natural
Department of Environmental and Natural Resource Economics
Resource Economics Kingston Coastal Institute
University of Rhode Island University of Rhode Island
Kingston, Rhode Island USA Kingston, Rhode Island USA
Scott Steinback
Social Sciences Branch
NMFS, NEFSC
Woods Hole Laboratory
Woods Hole, Massachusetts USA
Large Marine Ecosystems, Vol. 31
T.M. Hennessey and J.G. Sutinen (Editors)
(cid:14)9 2005 Published by Elsevier B.V.
1
The Large Marine Ecosystem Approach for Assessment and
Management of Ocean Coastal Waters
Kenneth Sherman
MOVEMENT TOWARDS ECOSYSTEM-BASED ASSESSMENT AND
MANAGEMENT
During the 10-year period between UNCED in 1992 and WSSD in 2002, advances were made
in introducing ecosystem-based assessment and management of natural resources and their
environments. A significant milestone in the marine ecosystem assessment and management
movement was achieved in the mid 1990s by the Ecological Society of America' s Committee
on the Scientific Basis for Ecosystem Management. The Committee concluded that the
overarching principle for guiding ecosystem management is to ensure the intergenerational
sustainability of ecosystem goods (e.g. fish, trees, petroleum) and ecosystem services or
processes including productivity cycles and hydrological cycles (Christensen et al. 1996).
From a fisheries perspective, the National Research Council (NRC 1999, 2000) concluded
that sustaining fishery yields will require maintaining the ecosystems that produce the fish.
These reports are supportive of a paradigm shift from the highly focused, single-species or
short-term sectoral thematic approach in general practice today to a broader, more
encompassing multi-thematic ecosystem-based approach that moves spatially from smaller to
larger scales, and from short-term to longer-term management practices. Included in this
approach is a movement away from the management of commodities toward maintaining the
sustainability of marine resources to ensure benefits from ecosystem goods and services for
the future (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1. Movement toward desab-metsysoce tnemeganam (from ocnehcbuL )4991
From I
Individual species Ecosystems
Small spatial scale Multiple scales
Short-term perspective Long-term perspective
Humans: Independent of Ecosystems Humans: Integral Parts of Ecosystems
Management Divorced from Research Adaptive Management
Sustaining Production Potential
Managing Commodities
for Goods dna Services
4 ehT Large Marine Ecosystem Approach for Assessment and Management of Ocean Coastal Waters
LARGE MARINE ECOSYSTEMS (LMES)
The paradigm shift depicted in Table 1.1 is presently emerging in the applications of
ecosystem-based assessment and management policies within the geographic boundaries of
large marine ecosystems (LMEs). On a global scale, 64 LMEs produce 90% of the world's
annual marine fishery biomass yield (Sherman 1994; Garibaldi and Limongelli 2003). Most of
the ocean pollution and coastal habitat alteration also occurs within the boundaries of LMEs.
LMEs are regions of ocean space encompassing coastal areas from river basins and estuaries
to the seaward boundaries of continental shelves, enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, and the
outer margins of the major current systems as shown in Figure 1-1. They are relatively large
regions on the order of 200,000 km 2 or greater, characterized by distinct bathymetry,
hydrography, productivity, and trophically dependent populations (Sherman 1994).
with Linked sdehsretaW
[ ~ I ~ 1 I _1 _L: [el l i
........
.1 EmlBe~n0See .41 I:~agonlonSl,~f 27. CarwyCurrent .04 N0~hemlAuelNll 53. WmtBer~gSu
2. Gulf of ~Jmlm l& Sou~hBrazllShe~ .82 Gu~fJ~Ct~w~t 4t. E m t ~ ~ 54. ChulcchiSm
3. CatJo~aC, mn le. EmlSrm~She~ 29. eee~pJe~C,rrent 42. So~'uost.~JstuU8 55. 8eeuru'tSeo
4. GuIfofC4dRonm .71 Nof~Bra~l SI,,~ 30, AglJIhss~ 43. SotJlllwut/~mlnlla 56, E~t~aWllmSeo
5. Gulf of Mexlo~ .81 WoslGroenlandSN@ 31. Som~Coesl~Cummt 44. W~Ausl~la 57. ~See
6. SmdhomlU,S, Cor~mmlalShelf 1tt, Eml~She@ .23 ,f~'ol~See 48. N ~ A ~ O 58, KlmSee
7. ~O.S, Ccmllner~Shelf 20. BerentsSee .33 RodSeo 46. NewZeeW~ShoW 60. k~ma:3helf
8. Sr 21. Nommg~nSl'~f 34. Bey of Bongel .74 EmtChlneSw e0. FamePfmtmu
9. @ehS 22. NmlhSes .63 Gu@ofThdard 48. YeiiowSee 61. ANan:k
,01 I n m . d e r ~ 23. ElSIe See 3~ ~t,~l'~(~'~In~ .94 Kuro~o,l~ 62. m~,.k:m191
.11 P e d l l r 24. ~ S h e l f 37. SuI~So8 50. SeeofJapon 63. Hudson88y
i2. ~nSee 25. Ii~xlanCom~l 38. hldlmleelanSea .15 Oya~ltoCum~ 64. An:~Oceen
.31 I-lun,~:~Cummt 26. Med~,~-,een .93 N~rlhAustneile 52 Sm~fOklmlsk
................................. . ................................................................................
Figure 1-1. Large Marine Ecosystems era areas of the ocean characterized by distinct bathymetry,
hydrography, productivity, and trophic interactions. They annually produce 09 percent of the world's
fish catch. They are national and regional focal areas of a global effort to reduce the degradation of
linked watersheds, marine resources, dna coastal environments from pollution, habitat loss, and over-
fishing.
Sherman 5
For 40 of the LMEs, studies have been conducted of the principal driving forces affecting
changes in biomass yields. Changes in biodiversity among the dominant species within fish
communities of LMEs have resulted from: excessive exploitation, naturally-occurring
environmental shifts in climate regime, or coastal pollution (Jackson et al. 2001). For
example, in the Humboldt Current, Benguela Current, and California Current LMEs, the
primary driving force influencing variability in fisheries yield is the influence of climate-
forced changes in upwelling strength; fishing and pollution effects are secondary and tertiary
effects on fisheries yields. In several continental shelf LMEs, including the Yellow Sea and
Northeast United States Shelf, excessive fisheries effort has caused large-scale declines in
catch and changes in the biodiversity and dominance in the fish community. In these
ecosystems, pollution and environmental perturbation are of secondary and tertiary influence.
In contrast, significant coastal pollution and eutrophication have been important factors
driving changes in fisheries yields of the Northwest Adriatic, Black Sea, and the Baltic Sea.
Following peer review, the results of these LME case studies were published in twelve
volumes, listed in Table 1-2.
ROLE OF THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT FACILITY )FEG(
Following a three-year pilot phase (1991-1994), the Global Environment Facility (GEF) was
formally launched to forge cooperation and finance actions in the context of sustainable
development that address critical threats to the global environment including: (1) biodiversity
loss, (2) climate change, (3) degradation of international waters, (4) ozone depletion, and (5)
persistent organic pollutants. Activities concerning (6) land degradation, primarily
desertification and deforestation as they relate to these threats, are also addressed. GEF
projects are implemented by UNDP, UNEP, and the World Bank and expanded opportunities
exist for participation by other agencies. The only new funding source to emerge from the
1992 Earth Summit, GEF today counts 171 countries as members. During its first decade,
GEF allocated $US 3.2 billion in grant financing, supplemented by more than $US 8 billion in
additional financing, for 800 projects in 651 developing countries and those in economic
transition. All six thematic areas of GEF, including the land degradation cross-cutting theme,
have implications for coastal and marine ecosystems. Priorities were established by the GEF
Council in its Operational Strategy (GEF 1995) adopted in 1995. The international waters
focal area was designed to be consistent with both Chapters 71 and 81 of Agenda 21. In
1995, the GEF Council included the concept of LMEs in its GEF Operational Strategy as a
vehicle for promoting ecosystem-based management of coastal and marine resources in the
international waters focal area within a framework of sustainable development. The Report of
the Second Meeting of the UN Informal, Open-ended Consultative Process on Ocean Affairs
(UN General Assembly 2001) related to UNCLOS recognized the contribution of the GEF in
addressing LMEs through its science-based and ecosystem-based approach. Since the mid-
1990s, developing countries have approached the GEF in increasing numbers for assistance in
improving the management of Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) shared with neighboring
nations. Processes being undertaken as part of GEF projects are focusing on Large Marine
Ecosystems (LMEs) to foster country-driven commitments to policy, legal, and institutional
reforms for changing the way human activities are conducted in the economic sectors that
place stress on coastal ecosystems. LMEs serve as place-based, ecologically-defined areas
6 The Large Marine Ecosystem Approach for Assessment and Management of Ocean Coastal Waters
Table 1-2. Peer reviewed and published large marine ecosystem studies
LME Vol. Author(s) LME Vol. Author(s)
Somali Coastal Current 7 Okemwa East China Sea 8 Chen & Shen
Bay of Bengal 5 Dwividi Yellow Sea 2,5,12 Tang
7 Hazizi et al. Kuroshio Current 2 Terazaki
East Bering Sea 1 Incze & Schumacher Sea of Japan 8 Terazaki
8 Livingston et .la Oyashio Current 2 Minoda
West Greenland Shelf 3 Hovg~ird & Buch Okhotsk Sea 5 Kusnetsov et .la
5 Blindheim & Skjoldal Gulf of Mexico 2 Richards & McGowan
01 Rice 4 Brown et .la
Barents Sea 2 Skjoldal & Rey 9 Shipp
4 Borisov 9 Gracia & Vasquez Baden
5 Skjoldal Southeast US Shelf 4 Yoder
01 Dalpadado et .la Northeast US Shelf 1 Sissenwine
21 Matishov 4 Falkowski
Norwegian Shelf 3 Ellertsen et .la 6 Anthony
5 Blindheim & Skjoldal 10,12 Sherman
North Sea 1 Daan Scotian Shelf 8 Zwanenburg et .la
9 Reid Caribbean Sea 3 Richards & Bohnsack
01 McGlade Patagonian Shelf 5 Bakun
21 Hempel South Brazil Shelf 21 Ekau & Knoppers
Iceland Shelf 01 Astthorsson East Brazil Shelf 21 Ekau & Knoppers
&Vilhjalmsson
Faroe Plateau 01 Gaard et .la North Brazil Shelf 21 Ekau & Knoppers
Antarctic 1 Scully et .la Baltic Sea 1 Kullenberg
3 Hempel 21 Jansson
5 Scully et .ia Celtic-Biscay Shelf 01 Lavin
California Current 1 McCall Iberian Coastal 2 Wyatt &Perez-Gandaras
4 Mullin 01 Wyatt & Porteiro
5 Bottom Mediterranean Sea 5 Caddy
21 Lluch-Belda et .la Canary Current 5 Bas
Pacific American Coastal 8 Bakun et .la 21 Roy & Cury
Humboldt Current 5 Bernal Guinea Current 5 Binet & Marchal
21 Wolffet .la 11 Koranteng & McGlade
Gulf of Thailand 5 Piyakarnchana 11 Mensah & Quaatey
11 Pauly & Chuenpagdee 11 Loveli & McGlade
South China Sea 5 Christensen 11 Cury & Roy
Indonesian Sea 3 Zijlstra & Baars 11 Koranteng
Northeast Australian Shelf 2 Bradbury & Mundy Benguela Current 2 Crawford et .la
5 Kelleher 21 Shannon & O'Toole
8, 21 Brodie Black Sea 5 Caddy
21 Daskalov
Vol. 1 1986. Variability and Management of Large Marine Ecosystems. Sherman & Alexander, eds. AAAS Symposium 99.
Westview Press, Boulder, CO. 319p
Vol. 2 1989. Biomass Yields and Geography of Large Marine Ecosystems. Sherman & Alexander, eds. AAAS Symposium 111.
Westview Press, Boulder, CO. 493p
Vol. 3 1990. Large Marine Ecosystems: Patterns, Processes, and Yields. Sherman, Alexander and Gold, eds. AAAS Symposium.
AAAS Press, Washington, DC. 242p
Vol. 4 1991. Food Chains, Yields, Models, and Management of Large Marine Ecosystems. Sherman, Alexander and Gold, eds.
AAAS Symposium. Westview Press. Boulder, CO. 320p
Vol. 5 1992. Large Marine Ecosystems: Stress, Mitigation and Sustainability. Sherman, Alexander and Gold, eds. AAAS Press,
Washington, DC. 376p.
Vol. 6 1996. ehT Northeast Shelf Ecosystem: Assessment, Sustainability and Management. Sherman, Jaworski and Smayda, eds.
Blackwell Science, Cambridge, MA. 564p
Vol. 7 1998. Large Marine Ecosystems of the Indian Ocean: Assessment, Sustainability and .tnemeganaM Sherman, Okemwa and
Ntiba, eds. Blackwell Science, Malden, MA. 394p
Vol. 8 1999. Large Marie Ecosystems of eht Pacific Rim: Assessment, Sustainability and .tnemeganaM Sherman and Tang, eds.
Blackwell Science, Malden, MA. 455p
Vol. 9 1999. ehT Gulf of Mexico Large Marine Ecosystem: Assessment, Sustainability and .tnemeganaM Kumpf, Steidinger and
Sherman, eds. Blackwell Science, Malden, MA. 736p
Vol. 10 2002. Large Marine Ecosystems of eht North Atlantic: Changing States and Sustainability. Skjoldal and Sherman, eds. Elsevier
Science, N.Y. and Amsterdam. 449p
Vol. 11 2002. Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem: Environmental Forcing and Sustainable Development of Marine Resources.
McGlade, Cury, Koranteng, Hardman-Mountford, eds. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam and NY. 392p
Vol. 21 2003. Large Marine Ecosystems of eht World: Trends ni Exploitation, Protection and Research. Hempel and Sherman, eds.
Elsevier Science, N.Y. and Amsterdam. 423p
Sherman 7
for which stakeholder support for integrating essential national and multi-country reforms and
intemational agency programs can be mobilized into a cost-effective, collective response to an
array of conventions and programs. Site-specific ocean concerns, those of adjacent coastal
areas, and linked freshwater basins are being addressed in LMEs through GEF assistance.
Operation of joint management institutions is being supported and tested in order to restore
biomass and diversity to sustainable levels to meet the increased needs of coastal populations,
and to reverse the precipitous declines in ecosystem integrity currently being caused by over-
fishing, habitat loss, and nitrogen over-enrichment. At risk are renewable goods and services
valued at $10.6 trillion per year (Costanza et al. 1997).
The geographic area of the LME, including its coastal area and contributing basins,
constitutes the place-based area for assisting countries to understand linkages among root
causes of degradation and for integrating needed changes in sectoral economic activities. The
LME areas serve to initiate capacity building and to bring science to pragmatic use in
improving the management of coastal and marine ecosystems. The GEF Operational Strategy
recommends that nations sharing an LME begin to address coastal and marine issues by
jointly undertaking strategic processes for analyzing factual and scientific information on
transboundary concerns, finding their root causes, and setting priorities for action on
transboundary concerns. This process has been referred to as a Transboundary Diagnostic
Analysis (TDA) and it provides a useful mechanism to foster participation at all levels.
Countries then determine the national and regional policy, and the legal and institutional
reforms and investments needed to address the priorities in a country-driven Strategic Action
Program (SAP). This allows sound science to become the basis for policy-making and fosters
a geographic location upon which an ecosystem-based approach to management can be
developed. This engages stakeholders in the geographic area so that they contribute to the
dialogue and in the end support the ecosystem-based approach that can be pragmatically
implemented by the communities and governments involved. Without such participative
processes, marine science has often remained confined to the marine science community or
has not been embraced in policy-making. Furthermore, the science-based approach
encourages transparency through joint monitoring and assessment processes (joint cruises for
countries sharing an LME) that build trust among nations over time and can overcome the
barrier of false information being reported.
MODULES FOR LME ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT
A five-module approach to the assessment and management of LMEs has proven useful in
ecosystem-based projects in the United States and elsewhere because the approach relies on
scientific information from the ecosystem under discussion The transboundary diagnostic
analysis (TDA) process and the strategic action plan (SAP) development process are
customized to, and then agreed upon by, all levels of the affected society. These processes
integrate science into management in a practical way and establish governance regimes
appropriate for the particular situation. The Large Marine Ecosystem approach engages
stakeholders, fosters the participation of the science community, and leads to the development
of adaptive management institutions.
The five modules consist of three that are science-based activities focused on: Productivity,
Fish/fisheries, and Pollution/ecosystem health. The other two modules, Socioeconomics and