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SURVEY RESEARCH AND SAMPLING THE SAGE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH KIT Survey Research and Sampling by Jan Eichhorn is the 4th volume in The SAGE Quantitative Research Kit. This book can be used together with the other titles in the Kit as a comprehensive guide to the process of doing quantitative research, but is equally valuable on its own as a practical introduction to Survey Research. Editors of The SAGE Quantitative Research Kit: Malcolm Williams – Cardiff University, UK Richard D. Wiggins – UCL Social Research Institute, UK D. Betsy McCoach – University of Connecticut, USA Founding editor: The late W. Paul Vogt – Illinois State University, USA SURVEY RESEARCH AND SAMPLING The SAGE Quantitative Research Kit Jan Eichhorn Los Angeles London New Delhi Singapore Washington DC Melbourne SAGE Publications Ltd 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP SAGE Publications Inc. 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 SAGE Publications India Pvt Ltd B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road New Delhi 110 044 SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd 3 Church Street #10-04 Samsung Hub Singapore 049483 © Jan Eichhorn 2021 This volume published as part of The SAGE Quantitative Research Kit (2021), edited by Malcolm Williams, Richard D. Wiggins and D. Betsy McCoach. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research, private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form, or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publisher, or in the case of reprographic reproduction, in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publisher. Library of Congress Control Number: 2021931885 British Library Cataloguing in Publication data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-1-5264-2380-1 Editor: Jai Seaman Assistant editor: Charlotte Bush Production editor: Manmeet Kaur Tura Copyeditor: QuADS Prepress Pvt Ltd Proofreader: Elaine Leek Indexer: Cathryn Pritchard Marketing manager: Susheel Gokarakonda Cover design: Shaun Mercier Typeset by: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd, Chennai, India Printed in the UK At SAGE we take sustainability seriously. Most of our products are printed in the UK using responsibly sourced papers and boards. When we print overseas we ensure sustainable papers are used as measured by the PREPS grading system. We undertake an annual audit to monitor our sustainability. CONTENTS List of Tables and Boxes About the Author 1 Introduction Why Do We Need to Worry About Sampling and Survey Design? The Approach of This Volume Overview of the Content of This Volume 2 Sampling Approaches: How to Achieve Representativeness Introduction Populations and Sampling Frames Probability and Non-Probability Sampling Approaches to Probability Sampling Simple Random Sampling Cluster and Multistage Sampling Stratified Sampling Approaches to Non-Probability Sampling Quota Sampling Common Alternative Non-Probability Sampling Methods Respondent-Driven Sampling 3 Sampling Mode: How We Actually Collect the Data Introduction Data Collection Methods Face-to-Face Telephone Direct Mail Internet Based Combining Methods Considering Non-Response Bias Adjustments After Data Collection: Weighting Applying Weights to Account for Response Biases Applying Weights to Account for Attrition 4 Questionnaire Design: Asking the Right Questions Introduction Distinguishing Between Different Types of Questions Open- and Closed-Ended Questions Single-Answer Multiple-Choice Questions Multiple-Answer-Item Questions Likert Scale Questions Numerical Scale Questions Ranking Questions Open Format (With Predetermined Units) What Makes Good Questions – and Some Common Pitfalls Non-Discrete Questions Providing Non-Discrete Answer Option Sets Providing Uncomprehensive Answer Option Sets Leading Questions Social Desirability Thinking About the Questionnaire Structurally The Effect of Question and Answer Option Order Linking Questions for Analyses Validity and Reliability Concerns Conclusion 5 Ensuring Survey Quality: Piloting, Checks and Cross-Cultural Comparability Introduction The Complex Path to a Good-Quality Survey Pre-Fieldwork Quality Checks Cognitive Interviewing Piloting Interviewer Preparation and Briefings Translation Post-Fieldwork Quality Checks Data Cleaning Sensitivity Analyses Cross-Cultural Construct Validity 6 Conclusion Glossary References Index LIST OF TABLES AND BOXES LIST OF TABLES 2.1 Population statistics for Poland, sex and age (Eurostat, 2016) and quota calculation 22 3.1 Influences on survey participation according to Groves and Couper (1998, p. 30) 44 3.2 Calculating weights for a survey sample from Poland with reference to population statistics (Eurostat, 2016) 47 4.1 Example of an 11-point scale with a labelled midpoint 61 4.2 Example questions from the World Values Survey (2012) 75 LIST OF BOXES 2.1 Case Study: Predicting the US Presidential Elections 1936: Why Sampling Is So Important 11 2.2 Ask an Expert: Rachel Ormston | Sampling Narrowly Defined Groups of Respondents 14 2.3 Ask an Expert: John Curtice | Surveys, Polls and Exit Polls 27 3.1 Case Study: Random Route Procedure in Wave 5 of the German World Values Survey Sampling 35 3.2 Ask an Expert: John Curtice | Mistakes in UK General Election Polling 49 4.1 Ask an Expert: Good Survey Questions and Common Pitfalls 63 4.2 Case Study: Asking About the Independence of Scotland 73 5.1 Case Study: The Processes Required to Create the Scottish Social Attitudes Survey 83 5.2 Case Study: Young People’s Political Engagement 86 5.3 Ask an Expert: Susan Reid and Paul Bradshaw: On Cognitive Interviews and