Table Of Content

Surface Process, Transportation, and Storage This pageintentionallyleftblank Oil and Gas Chemistry Management Series Surface Process, Transportation, and Storage Volume IV Edited by Qiwei Wang Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia GulfProfessionalPublishingisanimprintofElsevier 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,Oxford,OX51GB,UnitedKingdom Copyright©2023ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic ormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem, withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,further informationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementswithorganizationssuch astheCopyrightClearanceCenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite: www.elsevier.com/permissions. Thisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythe Publisher(otherthanasmaybenotedherein). MATLABsisatrademarkofTheMathWorks,Inc.andisusedwithpermission.TheMathWorksdoes notwarranttheaccuracyofthetextorexercisesinthisbook.Thisbook’suseordiscussionof MATLABssoftwareorrelatedproductsdoesnotconstituteendorsementorsponsorshipby TheMathWorksofaparticularpedagogicalapproachorparticularuseoftheMATLABssoftware. Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperience broadenourunderstanding,changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedical treatmentmaybecomenecessary. Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluating andusinganyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuch informationormethodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,including partiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assume anyliabilityforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability, negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,instructions,orideas containedinthematerialherein. ISBN:978-0-12-823891-2 ForInformationonallGulfProfessionalPublishingpublications visitourwebsiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher:CharlotteCockle SeniorAcquisitionsEditor:KatieHammon EditorialProjectManager:AleksandraPackowska ProductionProjectManager:PrasannaKalyanaraman CoverDesigner:MilesHitchen TypesetbyMPSLimited,Chennai,India Contents List ofcontributors................................................................................................xiii CHAPTER 1 Chemical scavenging of hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans....................................................................1 SunderRamachandran 1.1 Introduction....................................................................................2 1.2 Hydrogen sulfideand mercaptan measurement............................4 1.3 Hydrogen sulfideand mercaptan partitioninginoil, water, and gas............................................................................................5 1.4 Chemicalscavengers......................................................................5 1.4.1 Solidscavengers..................................................................6 1.4.2 Oxidizing chemicals............................................................7 1.4.3 Aldehydes............................................................................7 1.4.4 Formaldehyde reaction products.........................................8 1.4.5 Highvalence metal compounds........................................10 1.4.6 Aqueous alkaline solutions...............................................10 1.4.7 Hydrogenfluoride.............................................................11 1.4.8 Novelhydrogen sulfide scavengers frombiological sources...............................................................................11 1.5 Physical chemistry of scavengers................................................11 1.5.1 Scavenging kinetics..........................................................12 1.5.2 Scavenger thermodynamics..............................................12 1.6 Laboratory testing ofhydrogen sulfide andmercaptan scavengers.....................................................................................13 1.6.1 ASTM D5705testmethodology with modifications.....................................................................13 1.6.2 Laboratory assessment ofhydrogen sulfideand mercaptan scavengers intowers.......................................13 1.6.3 Continuous gas flow apparatus.........................................14 1.7 Hydrogen sulfideand mercaptan scavenging process.................15 1.7.1 In-line injection.................................................................15 1.7.2 Gas lift injection................................................................16 1.7.3 Capillary injection.............................................................17 1.7.4 Contact towers...................................................................17 1.7.5 Storage tanks.....................................................................17 1.7.6 Railcars.............................................................................19 1.7.7 Scavengers in acidizing treatment....................................19 v vi Contents 1.8 Case studies..................................................................................20 1.8.1 OptimizationofSouthTexas system..............................20 1.8.2 Optimizationofscavenging cost from joint industry program...........................................................................20 1.8.3 Scavenger automation at sour gas processing facility...20 1.8.4 Development of sour reservoiringiantfield in Kuwait.............................................................................21 1.8.5 Development of sour gas field inthe Netherlands using scavenger with scale inhibitor..............................21 1.8.6 Scavenging drygas pipeline inWestern Oklahoma......21 1.8.7 Scavenging incoiled tubing drilling operationsin Saudi Arabia....................................................................22 1.8.8 Reduction ofsulfur oxide content offlare gas...............22 1.8.9 Capillary string downhole injection inSouth Texas......22 1.8.10 FixedbedhydrogensulfideremovalintheNorthSea......23 1.9 Challenges associated with scavenging treatment.......................23 1.9.1 Reaction products..............................................................23 1.9.2 Induced scalingproblems.................................................24 1.9.3 Corrosion issues................................................................24 1.9.4 Formationdamage............................................................25 1.9.5 Emulsion problems inoil andwater separation...............25 1.9.6 Overconsumption of scavenger........................................25 1.10 New developments.......................................................................26 1.10.1 Safe operation.................................................................26 1.10.2 Digital transformation.....................................................26 1.10.3 Environmentally friendly products.................................26 1.11 Summary andconclusions...........................................................27 Nomenclature...............................................................................27 References....................................................................................28 CHAPTER 2 Natural gas sweetening..............................................37 Sebastien Duval 2.1 Introduction..................................................................................38 2.2 Gas conditioning tosatisfysalesgas quality...............................39 2.3 Natural gas sweetening methods..................................................42 2.4 Chemical absorption.....................................................................43 2.4.1 Chemicalreactions betweenH S and CO and amine....44 2 2 2.4.2 Amine process overview...................................................47 2.4.3 Design best practices........................................................49 2.5 Physical absorption......................................................................51 2.5.1 Propylene carbonateprocess.............................................52 Contents vii 2.5.2 Dimethyl ether of polyethylene glycol (DEPG or DMEPEG) solvents.........................................53 2.5.3 N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone....................................................53 2.5.4 Refrigeratedmethyl alcohol (methanol)...........................53 2.5.5 Combined physical and chemical absorption...................54 2.6 Adsorption....................................................................................54 2.7 Permeation ormembrane based technologies.............................55 2.7.1 Principle............................................................................57 2.7.2 Polymeric membrane type................................................58 2.7.3 Membrane module types...................................................59 2.7.4 Gas pretreatment...............................................................59 2.8 Sulfur recovery.............................................................................60 2.8.1 Thermal section.................................................................61 2.8.2 Catalytic section................................................................62 2.8.3 Majorequipment...............................................................63 2.8.4 Quality of the acid gas......................................................64 2.8.5 Reduction absorption tail gas treatment...........................64 2.9 Emerging approachesfor treating highly sour gas......................65 2.9.1 Cryogenic distillation........................................................66 2.9.2 Membranes for high H S..................................................66 2 2.10 CO capture technology at gas plant...........................................67 2 2.10.1 CO capture fromfluegas..............................................69 2 2.10.2 CO captured fromthe acid gas stream.........................70 2 2.11 Final remarks................................................................................76 Nomenclature...............................................................................76 References....................................................................................76 CHAPTER 3 Emulsion separation...................................................79 Thomas Krebs and Mohamed Reda Akdim 3.1 Introduction..................................................................................80 3.2 Emulsionformation......................................................................82 3.3 Emulsionstabilization..................................................................88 3.4 Theory ofemulsion separation....................................................93 3.4.1 Settlingvelocityofdroplets..............................................95 3.4.2 Coalescencerates............................................................100 3.4.3 Semi-empirical approaches.............................................105 3.5 Emulsionseparation techniques.................................................107 3.6 Thermal demulsification............................................................110 3.6.1 Effect ofheatingon emulsion properties.......................110 3.6.2 Heater technology...........................................................112 3.6.3 Casestudies.....................................................................113 viii Contents 3.7 Mechanical internals..................................................................114 3.7.1 Separatorvessels.............................................................114 3.7.2 Perforated baffles............................................................115 3.7.3 Plate packs.......................................................................116 3.7.4 Pipe separators................................................................119 3.7.5 Case studies.....................................................................120 3.8 Chemical demulsification...........................................................121 3.8.1 Effect of demulsifier onseparation rates.......................122 3.8.2 Mechanisms ofdemulsifier action..................................123 3.8.3 Demulsifier formulation..................................................125 3.8.4 Case studies.....................................................................128 3.9 Electrostatic demulsification......................................................129 3.9.1 Droplet migration inelectric fields................................130 3.9.2 Droplet collisionsinelectric fields.................................131 3.9.3 Effect of electricfield properties on droplet coalescence......................................................................134 3.9.4 Electrocoalescer technology...........................................136 3.9.5 Case studies.....................................................................138 3.10 Concluding remarks...................................................................139 Nomenclature.............................................................................139 References..................................................................................140 CHAPTER 4 Foam control.............................................................153 KalmanKoczo,MarkD.LeathermanandJonathanJ.Wylde 4.1 Introduction and overview.........................................................154 4.1.1 Foam basics.....................................................................155 4.1.2 Oil-basedversuswater-based foams..............................159 4.1.3 Antifoamingversus defoaming.......................................159 4.1.4 Antifoamingversus deaeration.......................................160 4.1.5 Solid-stabilized foams.....................................................161 4.1.6 Overviewoffoamstabilizerandantifoamchemistries......163 4.2 Oil-based foams..........................................................................165 4.2.1 Defoaming versus demulsification.................................165 4.2.2 Nonaqueous foaming......................................................165 4.2.3 Nonaqueous foams ofcrude oil......................................168 4.2.4 Chemistry ofantifoams for oil-based foams..................175 4.3 Water-based foams.....................................................................185 4.3.1 Chemistry ofantifoams for water-based foams.............185 4.3.2 Water-based applications................................................189 4.4 Mechanical defoaming...............................................................198 4.5 Defoamingby chemical reaction...............................................199 Contents ix 4.6 Mechanisms ofantifoaming action............................................199 4.6.1 Antifoaming ofnonaqueousfoams.................................200 4.6.2 Antifoaming ofaqueousfoams.......................................204 4.6.3 Breaking solidstabilized foams......................................211 4.7 Concluding remarks...................................................................212 Nomenclature.............................................................................213 References..................................................................................213 CHAPTER 5 Polymeric drag reduction in pipelines....................227 Yung N.Leeand Ray L. Johnston 5.1 Drag-reducing agent history.......................................................228 5.2 Basic pipelinehydraulics tutorial..............................................229 5.2.1 Reynolds number..........................................................230 5.2.2 Laminar flow.................................................................231 5.2.3 Turbulent flow...............................................................231 5.2.4 Pressure drop.................................................................231 5.2.5 Static head.....................................................................232 5.2.6 Friction pressure............................................................233 5.2.7 Gradient.........................................................................235 5.2.8 Profile............................................................................236 5.2.9 Pipeline pumps..............................................................237 5.2.10 Operating point.............................................................237 5.2.11 Calculatingdrag reduction performance ina pipeline system..............................................................238 5.3 Drag-reducing agent chemistry..................................................240 5.4 Drag reduction mechanism........................................................240 5.4.1 Misconceptions................................................................242 5.5 Application tothe pipeline—drag-reducing agent theory.........243 5.5.1 Applications inoil/water ormultiphase pipelines..........247 5.6 Utilizationof drag-reducing agent inpipeline operations........249 5.6.1 Example casesfor utilization inpipelines......................251 5.7 Conclusion..................................................................................257 Nomenclature.............................................................................257 References..................................................................................258 CHAPTER 6 Natural gas storage by adsorption...........................261 Yuguo Wang and RashidOthman 6.1 Introduction................................................................................262 6.2 Fundamentals ofadsorption.......................................................265 6.2.1 Definition........................................................................265 6.2.2 Adsorption forces............................................................265 6.2.3 Adsorption separation and storage mechanism..............266