Surface Modification and Mechanisms: Friction, Stress, and Reaction Engineering

747 Pages·2004·19.589 MB·English

by  George E. Totten, Hong Liang

4872-7_Totten_Prelims_R2_031204
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4872-7_Totten_Preface_R2_031504
Preface
Therearemanytextsandhandbooksavailabledescribingtribologicalprocesses,effectsof
additives on lubrication, tribochemistry, surface engineering, and heat treating method-
ologies involved in surface modification. However, few of these texts provide a thorough
integrationofsurfacemodificationreactionsandprocessestoachieveatribologicalresult
and none provides a physical tribochemical (mechanistic) understanding of surface struc-
tural changes that occur under various circumstances. This book was written to address
thesedeficienciesandprovideacriticallyimportanttextforthisvitallyimportanttechnol-
ogyfield.
Thebookwaswritteninfourparts:
Part One Residual Stresses
Part Two Reaction Processes and Mechanisms
Part Three Surface Modification by Heat Treatment and Plasma-Based Methods
Part Four Modeling, Simulation, and Design
An often overlooked aspect of tribological processes is the role of residual stresses.
PartOnediscussestheformationoftemperaturefieldscreatedasaresultoffrictionduring
heat treatment, welding and cutting, and their role in residual stress formation, with an
overview of residual stresses arising during thin-film formation. These are important
considerationsinvolvedinsurfacedesignfortribologicalapplications.
Part Two provides an extensive overview of the role of surface structure and
mechanisms as a result of formation of metallic oxides due to wear processes, the role of
lubriciousoxidesformedonvariousceramicsubstrates,structureofplastics,tribochemical
surfacemechanisms,tribopolymerization,baseoilandadditivesurfaceinteraction,andthe
roleofsurfacehydrolysisontheseprocesses.Thereactionmechanismsofextremepressure
additiveswithsurfacesduringwearandmechanismsinvolvedinboundarylubricationare
alsocovered.Chapters12and13provideanextensivediscussionofelectrochemicalmech-
anismsandtheroleofelectrochemistryinwearprocesses.
PartThreecontinueswiththeeffectofsurfacemodificationtechnologiesandrelated
mechanisms. These processes include conventional heat treating such as hardening and
tempering, carburizing, nitriding, shot peening, and others. In addition, a comprehensive
overview ofphysical vapordeposition (PVD),chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and ion
implantationinadditiontovariousrelatedhybridprocessesisprovided.Laserimpingement
andnanometerscalesurfacemodificationtechnologiesarealsodiscussed.
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
MD: TOTTEN, JOB: 03229,PAGE:iii
4872-7_Totten_Preface_R2_031504
Part Four pulls all of these approaches together and provides general guidelines for
designingforwearlifeandfrictionalperformanceandadescriptionoftheuseofsimulation
methodologiestomodelinterfacialfrictiononsolidsurfaces.
This book will be an invaluable resource for material scientists and engineers,
designers, mechanical engineers, metallurgists, tribologists and lubrication engineers. It
mayalsobeusedasatextbookforadvancedundergraduateandgraduatecoursesinsurface
engineeringandtribology.
Thepreparationofthistextwasanenormoustaskandweareindebtedtothevarious
Internationalexpertsfortheircontributions.SpecialthankstothestaffatMarcelDekker,
Inc.andRichardJohnsonfortheirpatienceandinvaluableassistance.
GeorgeE.Totten
HongLiang
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
MD: TOTTEN, JOB: 03229,PAGE:iv
4872-7_Totten_Contents_R2_031204
Contents
Preface
Contributors
Part One Residual Stresses
1. Temperature and Stress Fields Due to Contact with Friction, Surface
Heat Treatment, Welding, and Cutting
Franz Dieter Fischer and Ewald A. Werner
2. Stresses in Thin Films
Robert C. Cammarata
Part Two Reaction Processes and Mechanisms
3. Metallic Tribo-oxides: Formation and Wear Behavior
Hon So
4. Review on Lubricious Oxides and Their Practical Importance
Mathias Woydt
5. Plastics
Zygmunt Rymuza
6. Tribochemistry
Czeslaw Kajdas
7. Tribopolymerization as a Mechanism of Boundary Lubrication
Michael J. Furey and Czeslaw Kajdas
8. Hydrolysis
Czeslaw Kajdas
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
MD:TOTTEN,JOB: 03229,PAGE:v
4872-7_Totten_Contents_R2_031204
9. Oil Surface: Additive Reaction Mechanisms
Jozˇe Vizˇintin
10. Surface Chemistry of Extreme-Pressure Lubricant Additives
Wilfred T. Tysoe and Peter V. Kotvis
11. Tribochemistry of Boundary Lubrication Processes
Ilia A. Buyanovsky, Zinaida V. Ignatieva, and Ruvim N. Zaslavsky
12. Electrochemistry, Corrosion, and Corrosion-Wear
Matgorzata E. Ziomek-Moroz and Jeffrey A. Hawk
13. Corrosion and Its Impact on Wear Processes
Einar Bardal and Asgeir Bardal
Part Three Surface Modification by Heat Treatment and Plasma-Based
Methods
14. Heat Treatment: Tribological Applications
Lauralice Campos Freneschini Canale and Ovidio Richard Crnkovic
15. Plasma-Based Surface Modification
Paul K. Chu and Xiubo Tian
16. Surface Engineering with Lasers
Jeff Th. M. De Hosson, Vasˇek Ocelı´k, and Yutao Pei
17. Nanometer-Scale Surface Modification Using Scanning Force
Microscopy in Chemically Active Environments
J. Thomas Dickinson and Steve C. Langford
Part Four Modeling, Simulation, and Design
18. Designing for Wear Life and Frictional Performance
O. O. Ajayi and Kenneth C. Ludema
19. Simulation Methods for Interfacial Friction in Solids
James E. Hammerberg and Brad Lee Holian
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
MD: TOTTEN, JOB: 03229,PAGE:vi
4872-7_Totten_Contributors_R2_031204
Contributors
O. O. Ajayi, Ph.D. Department of Tribology, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne,
Illinois,U.S.A.
AsgeirBardal,Dr.Ing. HydroAluminiumTechnologyCenterA˚ rdal,A˚ rdal,Norway
Einar Bardal, Dr.Ing. (Emeritus), Department of Machine Design and Materials Tech-
nology,NorwegianUniversityofScienceandTechnology,Trondheim,Norway
Ilia A. Buyanovsky, D.Sc. (Eng) Department of Tribology, Mechanical Engineering
ResearchInstitute,RussianAcademyofSciences,Moscow,Russia
Robert C. Cammarata, Ph.D. Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns
HopkinsUniversity,Baltimore,Maryland,U.S.A.
LauraliceCamposFranceschiniCanale,Ph.D. UniversityofSa˜oPaulo,SanCarlos,Brazil
PaulK.Chu,Ph.D. DepartmentofPhysicsandMaterialsScience,CityUniversityofHong
Kong,Kowloon,HongKong
OvidioRichardCrnkovic,Ph.D. UniversityofSa˜oPaulo,SanCarlos,Brazil
JeffTh.M.DeHosson,Dr.Phys. DepartmentofAppliedPhysics,UniversityofGronin-
gen,Groningen,TheNetherlands
J.Thomas Dickinson,Ph.D. DepartmentofPhysics,WashingtonState University, Pull-
man,Washington,U.S.A.
Franz Dieter Fischer, Dr. Sc. Montanuniversita¨t Leoben and Austrian Academy of
Sciences,Leoben,Austria
Michael J. Furey, Ph.D. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic
InstituteandStateUniversity,Blacksburg,Virginia,U.S.A.
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
MD:TOTTEN,JOB: 03229,PAGE:vii
4872-7_Totten_Contributors_R2_031204
James E. Hammerberg, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico,
U.S.A.
JeffreyA.Hawk,Ph.D. U.S.DepartmentofEnergy,Albany,Oregon,U.S.A.
Brad Lee Holian, Ph.D. Theoretical Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los
Alamos,NewMexico,U.S.A.
ZinaidaV.Ignatieva,Ph.D. DepartmentofTribology,MechanicalEngineeringResearch
Institute,RussianAcademyofSciences,Moscow,Russia.
CzeslawKajdas,Ph.D.,D.Sc. WarsawUniversityofTechnology,InstituteofChemistryat
PlJock,PlJock,Poland
Peter V. Kotvis, Ph.D. Department of Research and Development, Benz Oil, Inc.,
Milwaukee,Wisconsin,U.S.A.
SteveC.Langford,Ph.D. DepartmentofPhysics,WashingtonStateUniversity,Pullman,
Washington,U.S.A.
KennethC.Ludema,Ph.D. (Emeritus),DepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,Univer-
sityofMichigan,AnnArbor,Michigan,U.S.A.
Vasˇek Ocelı´k, Dr.Phys. Department of Applied Physics, University of Groningen,
Groningen,TheNetherlands
Yutao Pei, Dr.Mat.Sc.Eng. Department of Applied Physics, University of Groningen,
Groningen,TheNetherlands
ZygmuntRymuza,Ph.D.,D.Sc.,MEng. DepartmentofMechatronics,InstituteofMicro-
mechanicsandPhotonics,WarsawUniversityofTechnology,Warsaw,Poland
Hon So, Ph.D. Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Taiwan University,
Taipei,Taiwan
XiuboTian,Ph.D. DepartmentofPhysicsandMaterialsScience,CityUniversityofHong
Kong,Kowloon,HongKong
WilfredT.Tysoe,Ph.D. DepartmentofChemistry,UniversityofWisconsin–Milwaukee,
Milwaukee,Wisconsin,U.S.A.
Jozˇe Vizˇintin, Ph.D. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Centre for Tribology and
TechnicalDiagnostics,UniversityofLjubljana,Ljubljana,Slovenia
Ewald A. Werner, Dr. Mont.habil. Department of Materials Science and Mechanics of
Materials,TechnischeUniversita¨tMu¨nchen,Munich,Germany
Copyright 2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
MD:TOTTEN,JOB: 03229,PAGE:viii
4872-7_Totten_Contributors_R2_031204
Mathias Woydt, Dr.-Ing. Department of Component Tribology, Federal Institute for
MaterialsResearchandTesting(BAM),Berlin,Germany
RuvimN.Zaslavsky,Ph.D. Venchur-NLtd.,Moscow,Russia
Matgorzata E. Ziomek-Moroz, Ph.D. U.S. Department of Energy, Albany, Oregon,
U.S.A.
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MD: TOTTEN, JOB: 03229,PAGE:ix
4872-7_Totten_Ch01_R2_031204
1
Temperature and Stress Fields Due to Contact
with Friction, Surface Heat Treatment,
Welding, and Cutting
Franz Dieter Fischer
Montanuniversita¨tLeobenandAustrian Academyof Sciences,Leoben,Austria
Ewald A. Werner
TechnischeUniversita¨t,Mu¨nchen, Munich,Germany
I. INTRODUCTION
Themaingoalofthischapteristoprovidethereaderwithanalyticexpressionsanddiagrams
for temperature fields due to a moving heat source in contact with the surface of a body.
Technologicalapplicationsofsuchproblemsolutionsaremanifold:
(cid:1) Frictional contact realized by a pin moving across the surface of a body or by
rolling/slidingofawheelonarailisatypicalcase.Thetemperaturefielddepends
ontheboundaryconditions(see,e.g.,Ref.1foraninsulatedsurfaceandRefs.2
and 3 for a convective surface). The temperature field connected to fretting is
reported in Ref. 4. The temperature field in a work roll during strip rolling falls
intothiscategoryofproblems(see,e.g.,Refs.5and6).Yetanotherapplicationis
hot spotting in the contact of two ideally parallel planes such as brakes and
clutches. The input of heat into the rotating part may be inhomogeneous and
frequently will concentrate to local spots because of asperities and/or thermo-
elastic instability phenomena (see, e.g., Refs. 7 and 8).
(cid:1) Theweldingliteratureoffersmanysolutionsfortemperaturefieldsassociatedwith
movingheatsources(see,e.g.,thebooksbyRadaj[9],chap.2,andbyGrong[10],
chap.1).BothbooksreferoftentotheclassicalsolutionsbyRosenthalobtainedin
the 1940s and the Russian literature by, e.g., Rykalin. Especially steady
temperaturedistributionsarereportedassumingthatthesourceapproachesfrom
minusinfinityandafterpassingthepointofinterestgoestoplusinfinity.Itturned
out that the conduction of heat orthogonal to the surface of the body plays the
dominantrole.However,ifthinplatesareconsidered,onlyheatconductioninthe
planeoftheplateisrelevant,andspecialsolutionsforthinplatesarecollectedin
thetwoa.m.books.Inaddition,somespecificpapersonthecuttingandwelding
ofplatesdealingalsowithamoving,mostlycircularheatsourceleavingacutor
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4872-7_Totten_Ch01_R2_031204
aweldingseambehindarecited(see,e.g.,Refs.11and12).Withrespecttocutting
ofsinglecrystalsofsilicon,e.g.,forwafers,thereaderisreferredtoarecentpaper
[13].
(cid:1) Surface hardening by electron or laser beam technology is one of the current
methods to produce selectively hardened layers, e.g., on steel substrates (see the
overviewsbyKrauss[14]andBrooks[15]).Withrespecttothethermalproblema
heat source passes several times over the surface of a body giving rise to a tem-
peraturefieldtobecontrolled(seeRef.16,theworksbyAshbyetal.[17–19],the
works of Ro¨del et al. [20–24] and chaps. 5 and 6 of the book by Dowden [25]).
Similarapplicationswithrespecttothetemperaturefielddevelopingarethedep-
osition of a coating by thermal spraying [23], laser heat-forming processes as
described in Ref. 26, or laser nitriding [27].
(cid:1) Moving heat sources are of importance for turning of metals on a lathe (for
detailsseeRef.28,partsI–III,orRef.29).Onemustdistinguishbetweenthetool,
the chip, and the work piece. During turning the shear plane heat source moves
alongthesurfaceoftheworkpiece.Withrespecttothechipthesameheatsource
moves as an oblique band through the chip, while it acts as a stationary heat
sourceinthetool.Ofcourse,aproperpartitionofthetotalheatgeneratedtothe
three distinct bodies must be performed. It is also reported in Ref. 28 that the
modifiedsolutionforanobliquebandagreeswellwithmeasuredtemperaturesin
thechip.Thereexistsalsoasolutionforaninclinedheatsourcebandallowingfor
convection at the surface (see Dawson and Malkin [29]).
(cid:1) Recently, a moving rectangular and triangular heat source due to grinding was
dealt with in Ref. 30. The finite element method was employed to calculate both
thetemperaturefieldandtheresidualstresses inanelastic–plastic halfspacesub-
jected to this type of heat input.
There are several reasons why an engineer is interested in the temperature field due to a
moving heat source:
(cid:1) Amongothers,thetemperaturefielddevelopinginfrictionalcontactdecidesover
the proper functionality of a workpiece or a device.
(cid:1) In addition to the stress state from a mechanical load, the thermally induced
stressstate,especiallyinthecaseofarepeatedheatinput,isofmajorimportance
to understand the influence of the temperature field on the initiation and prop-
agation of cracks.
(cid:1) One might be interested in the metallurgical processes such as phase transfor-
mations driven by temperature field. In steel, this can be the formation of aus-
tenite during heating or of martensite during cooling.
Theproblemofamovingheatsourceonthesurfaceofabodyhasbeendealtwithseveral
times in the past. The reader is referred here to an early work by Jaeger [31] and the
prominent text book by Carslaw and Jaeger [32], Sect. 29, and Refs. 1–3 and 20, and the
recentstudiesbyKomanduriandHou[33–35]withrespecttoanalyticalsolutions;seealso
theliteraturemainlycitedinRefs.1–3.Inthelastdecade,numericalsolutions,mainlybased
onthefiniteelementmethod,havebeenappliedtothistypeofproblem(seetheliterature
citedinRefs.2and3andalsoRefs.13,23,24,and26wherethenumericalverificationofthe
resultsdevelopedbelowcanbeseen).ThefinitedifferencemethodisusedinRef.36.This
chapterintendstoprovidethereaderwithsomeanalyticalandsemianalyticalsolutions(in
thesenseofnumericalevaluationofanalyticalexpressions)fortemperatureandstressfields
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