Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology

1704 Pages·2017·260.9 MB·English

by  Bharat Bhushan (eds.)

Springer

Handbook
oƒ
Nano-
technology

Bhushan
Editor

4th Edition
123
Springer Handbook
of Nanotechnology
Springer Handbooks provide
aconcisecompilationofapproved
key information on methods of
research, general principles, and
functionalrelationshipsinphysical
andappliedsciences.Theworld’s
leading experts in the fields of
physicsandengineeringwillbeas-
signedbyoneorseveralrenowned
editorstowrite thechapterscom-
prisingeach volume.Thecontent
is selected by these experts from
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onlinecontent)andothersystematic
andapprovedrecentpublicationsof
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Thevolumesaredesignedtobe
usefulas readable desk reference
booktogiveafastandcomprehen-
siveoverviewandeasyretrievalof
essentialreliablekeyinformation,
includingtables,graphs,andbibli-
ographies.Referencestoextensive
sourcesareprovided.
H
Springer
Handbook
of Nanotechnology
Bharat Bhushan (Ed.)
4th Edition
With1325Figuresand100Tables
K
Editor
BharatBhushan
TheOhioStateUniversity
NanoprobeLabforBio-&Nanotechnology&Biomimetics
201W.19thAve.
Columbus,OH,43210-1107,USA
[email protected]
ISBN:978-3-662-54355-9 e-ISBN:978-3-662-54357-3
DOI10.1007/978-3-662-54357-3
LibraryofCongressControlNumber: 2017954360
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V
Foreword
When President W.J. Clinton approved the National Nanotechnology Initiative in
2000,wecouldnotreallyimagineitsfullimpactonscience,technologyandtheecon-
omy. Nanotechnology refers to technology at the nanoscale that has applications in
therealworld.Itisabroadandhighlyinterdisciplinaryfieldthatisstillevolving.The
fieldinvolvesthediscoveryanddevelopmentofnovelmaterials,processes,andphe-
nomenaatthenanometerscale,aswellasthedevelopmentofnewexperimentaland
theoreticaltechniquesforresearch.Thesediscoveriesprovidethefoundationsforfur-
therdevelopmentofinnovativenanosystemsandnanostructuredmaterials.Thereisan
increasing need for a multidisciplinary,systems-oriented approach to manufacturing
micro/nanodevicesthatfunctionreliably.Thiscanonlybeachievedthroughthecross-
fertilizationofideasfromdifferentdisciplinesandthesystematicflowofinformation
andpeopleamongresearchgroups.
To encourage this multidisciplinary approach, Professor Bharat Bhushan has
Prof.NealLane
harnessedhisownknowledgeandexperience,gainedinseveralindustriesanduniver-
MalcolmGillisUniversity
sities,toassembleinternationallyrecognizedacademicandindustryauthoritiesfrom
ProfessorEmeritus
around the world to write chapters for this handbook. The topics include the latest DepartmentofPhysicsand
AstronomyEmeritus
major advances in many fields where nanoscale science and engineering are being
SeniorFellow,RiceUniversity’s
pursued,andillustratehowthefieldofnanotechnologyhascontinuedtoemergeand BakerInstituteforPublicPolicy
blossom. RiceUniversity
Houston,Texas
Coveringeventhemostimportantaspectsofnanotechnologyinasinglebookthat September2016
reaches readers ranging from students to active senior researchers in academia and Prof.LaneservedintheClinton
AdministrationasAssistant
industryis an enormouschallenge.Addingtothis challengeis theaccelerating pace
tothePresidentforScience
ofdiscoveryandapplicationsinnanotechnology.However,asinearliereditions,Pro- andTechnologyandDirector
fessorBhushandoesanadmirablejobbringingtogetherdisparatetopicsandareasof oftheWhiteHouseOfficeof
ScienceandTechnologyPolicy
studyand practiceto create a cohesiveandwide-ranginghandbook,sureto serveas (1998–2001)and,priortothat,
thebedrockforanyoneinterestedinthefield. asDirectoroftheNational
ScienceFoundation(1993–1998).
ProfessorBhushan’scomprehensivebookisintendedtoserveasbothatextbook WhileattheWhiteHouse,he
foruniversitycoursesandareferenceforresearchers.Itisatestamenttothequalityof wasinstrumentalincreating
theNationalNanotechnology
thehandbookcontentsthatcontinuingeditionshavebeencreated.Thethreeeditions Initiative(NNI).
were timelyadditionsto theliterature on nanotechnology,and stimulatedfurther in-
terestinthisimportantnewfieldwhileservingasinvaluableresourcestomembersof
theinternationalscientificandindustrialcommunity.Theincreasingdemandfor up-
to-dateinformationonthisfastmovingfieldledtothethirdedition.Itisincreasingly
importantthatscientistsandengineers,whatevertheirspecialty,haveasolidgrounding
in the fundamentals and potential applications of nanotechnology. This fourth edi-
tion addresses that need by paying particular attention to the widening audience of
readers,discussingnanotechnologyandnanoscienceeducation,andprovidingtimely
andusefulinformationonnewandburgeoningnanotechnologyareas.Italsoincludes
adiscussionofthesocietal,ethical,andpoliticalissuesthattendtosurroundemerging
technology.
TheEditor-in-Chiefandhisteamaretobewarmlycongratulatedforbringingto-
getherthisexclusive,opportune,andusefulSpringerHandbookofNanotechnology.
VII
Preface for the Fourth Edition
On 29 December 1959, at the California Institute of The integration of nanotechnologyinto larger sys-
Technology,NobelLaureate RichardP. Feynmangave tems gives us breakthrough solutions to many cur-
a talk at the Annual Meeting of the American Physi- rent environmental, medical, and industrial problems,
calSocietytitledThere’sPlentyofRoomattheBottom, including smart materials, nanomanufacturing, elec-
which has become one of the classic science lectures tronics, targeted drug delivery, energy, water, biotech-
of the 20th century. He presented a technological vi- nology, information technology, and national security.
sion of extreme miniaturization in 1959,several years Nanotechnology will have a profound impact on our
before the word chip became part of the lexicon. He economy and society; it is a modern industrial rev-
talkedabouttheproblemofmanipulatingandcontrol- olution. Nanotechnology represents a megatrend and
lingthingsonasmallscale.Extrapolatingfromknown has become a general purpose technology. It is now
physicallaws,Feynmanenvisionedatechnologyusing a household word and a buzzword often used in mar-
the ultimate toolbox of nature: building nano-objects ketingproducts.
atom by atom or molecule by molecule. Since the Thereisanincreasingneedforamultidisciplinary,
1980s,themanyinventionsanddiscoveriesinthefab- system-oriented approach to design and manufactur-
rication of nano-objects have been testaments to his ing of micro/nanodevices that function reliably. This
vision. can onlybeachieved throughthecross-fertilization of
In a January 2000 speech, also at the California ideasfromdifferentdisciplinesandthesystematicflow
Institute of Technology, President William J. Clinton ofinformationandpeopleamongresearchgroups.Re-
talked about the exciting promise of nanotechnology liability is a critical technology for many micro- and
and the importance of expanding research in nano- nanosystems and nanostructured materials. A broad-
scale science and technologymore broadly. Later that based handbook was needed, and so the first edition
month,intheStateoftheUnionAddress,heannounced oftheSpringerHandbookofNanotechnologywaspub-
an ambitious $497 million federal, multiagency Na- lished in April 2004. It presented an overview of
tional Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) in the 2001 nanomaterial synthesis, micro/nanofabrication, micro-
fiscal year (FY) budget, and made the NNI a top sci- andnanocomponentsandsystems,scanningprobemi-
ence and technology priority. The objective of this croscopy, reliability issues for nanotechnology, and
initiativewastoformabroad-basedcoalitioninwhich industrial applications. When the handbook went on
academia, the private sector, and local, state, and fed- saleinEurope,itwassoldoutintendays.Reviewson
eral governments worked together to push the enve- thehandbookwereveryflattering.
lope of nanoscience and nanoengineering and to reap Giventheexplosivegrowthinnanoscienceandna-
nanotechnology’spotentialsocial and economicbene- notechnology, the publisher and the editor decided to
fits. developasecondeditiononlysixmonthsafterthepub-
Nanotechnology refers to technology done at the lication of the first edition. The second edition (2007)
nanoscale that has applications in the real world. The cameoutinDecember2006.Thepublisherandtheed-
uniquephysicalandchemicalpropertiesofnanomateri- itoragaindecidedtodevelopathirdeditionsixmonths
alscanbeexploitedforapplicationsthatbenefitsociety. afterthepublicationofthesecondedition,whichcame
The National Nanotechnology Initiative was formal- outin2010.
ized with the 21st Century Nanotechnology Research There continue to be significant developments in
and Development Act in 2003. Since 2001, the US bio-andnanotechnology,andmanyproductshavebeen
Congresshasappropriatedabout$20billionfornano- commercialized. Now, politicians, investors, and in-
technology research and development (R&D) through dustrialists can see return on their R&D investments.
FY 2015, with about $1.5 billion spent annually. US Societal, ethical, and political effects as well as en-
private sector R&D funding is more than double that vironmental and health and safety issues need to be
offederalandstatefundingwithafocusontranslating addressed. As nanoproducts become real and interest
fundamental research into commercial products. The in this explodingfield grows, there emerges a need to
revenuesfromnanoenabledproductscontinuegrowing, developnanoscienceandnanotechnologycurriculaand
withover$200BinFY2012intheUSalone,andover textbooksthat can be used in academia. The need ex-
$700Bworldwide.Thisrepresentsanimpressivereturn istsstartingfromK-12throughcollegeandcontinuing
oninvestment. education, as well as technical training. The present
VIII PrefacefortheFourthEdition
fourth edition was launched after five years after the to become active in this field, and practicing engi-
publication of the third editiom. The objective of this neers and scientists who have encountered a problem
edition is to cover the latest developments and intro- and hope to solve it as expeditiously as possible. The
duce new areas of nanoscience and nanotechnology. handbook should serve as an excellent text for one-
Thiseditionintegratesknowledgefromnanostructures, or two-semester graduate courses in nanotechnology
nanofabrication, materials science, nanodevices, and in mechanical engineering, materials science, applied
reliability. It covers various industrial applications. It physics,orappliedchemistry.
also addresses societal, ethical, and political issues, I wish to sincerely thank the authors for offering
as well as environmental, health and safety aspects, to write comprehensive chapters on a tight schedule.
and nanotechnology education. Given the significant This is generally an added responsibility in the hec-
interest in biomedical applications and biomimetics, ticworkschedulesofresearcherstoday.Idependedon
a number of additional chapters in this arena were a large number of reviewers who provided critical re-
added. views.Lastbutnottheleast,Iwouldliketothankmy
Almostall chapters are either new or substantially assistantRenéeL.Ripleyforvariousadministrativedu-
revisedwithcoverageofnewareas.Thefourthedition ties;hertirelesseffortsarehighlyappreciated.
consistsof47chapters.Thechaptershavebeenwritten Ihopethatthishandbookwillstimulatefurtherin-
by over 130 internationally recognized experts in the terestinthisimportantnewfield,andthatreadersofthis
field,fromacademia,nationalresearchlabsandindus- handbookwillfindituseful.
tryfromallovertheworld.
This handbookis intendedfor three types ofread- BharatBhushan
ers: graduate students of nanotechnology, researchers Editor
in academia and industry who are active or intend September2017
IX
About the Editor
Dr. Bharat Bhushan received an M.S. in mechanical Dr. Bhushan is an accomplished
engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- organizer. He organized the first Sym-
nologyin1971,anM.S.inmechanicsandaPh.D.inme- posium on Tribology and Mechanics
chanicalengineeringfromtheUniversityofColoradoat of Magnetic Storage Systems in 1984
Boulderin1973and1976respectively,an MBA from and the first International Symposium
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Troy, NY in 1980, on Advances in Information Storage
DoctorTechnicaefromtheUniversityofTrondheimat Systems in 1990, both of which are
Trondheim,Norwayin1990,aDoctorofTechnicalSci- now held annually. He organized
ences from the Warsaw University of Technology at two international NATO institutes in
Warsaw, Poland in 1996, and Doctor Honouris Causa Europe.HeisthefounderofanASME
fromtheNationalAcademyofSciencesatGomel,Be- Information Storage and Processing
larus in 2000 and University of Kragujevac, Serbia in Systems Division founded in 1993
2011. He is a registered professional engineer. He is and served as the founding chair from
presently an Ohio Eminent Scholar, The Howard D. 1993–1998.Hisbiographyhasbeenlistedinovertwo
WinbiglerProfessor,andtheDirectoroftheNanoprobe dozenWho’sWhobooksincludingWho’sWhointhe
LaboratoryforBio-&NanotechnologyandBiomimet- World. He has received more than two dozen awards
ics (NLB2) in the College of Engineering, and affili- for his contributions to science and technology from
ated faculty in the John Glenn College of Public Af- professional societies, industry, and US government
fairs,attheOhioStateUniversity,Columbus,Ohio.In agencies including the Life Achievement Tribology
2013–14,heservedasanASME/AAAS(AmericanSo- AwardandtheInstitutionofChemicalEngineers(UK)
ciety of Mechanical Engineers/American Association Global Award. His research was listed in the top ten
fortheAdvancementofScience)Science&Technology sciencestoriesof2015.Heisalsotherecipientofvar-
PolicyFellow,HouseCommitteeonScience,Space& ious internationalfellowshipsincludingthe Alexander
Technology,UnitedStatesCongress,Washington,DC. vonHumboldtResearchPrizeforSeniorScientists,the
Hisresearchinterestsincludefundamentalstudieswith MaxPlanckFoundationResearchAwardforOutstand-
afocusonscanningprobetechniquesintheinterdisci- ingForeignScientists,andtheFulbrightSeniorScholar
plinaryareas of bio/nanotribology,bio/nanomechanics Award. He is a foreign member of the International
andbio/nanomaterialscharacterizationandapplications Academy of Engineering (Russia), the Byelorussian
inbio/nanotechnologyandbiomimetics.Heisaninter- Academy of Engineering and Technology and the
nationally recognized expert in bio/nanotribology and AcademyofTriboengineeringofUkraine,anhonorary
bio/nanomechanics using scanning probe microscopy, member of the Society of Tribologists of Belarus and
and is one of the most prolific authors on the topic. STLE (Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engi-
He is considered by some a pioneer of the tribology neers),afellowofASME,IEEE(InstituteofElectrical
andmechanicsofmagneticstoragedevices.Hehasau- andElectronicsEngineers)andtheNewYorkAcademy
thoredeightscientificbooks,90Chandbookchapters, ofSciences,andamemberofASEE(AmericanSociety
800Cscientificpapers(OneofGoogleScholar’s1612 forEngineeringEducation),SigmaXiandTauBetaPi.
highly cited researchers (h >100) and h-index 110C Dr. Bhushan has previously worked for Mechani-
with 60kC citations; Web of Science h-index 857C; calTechnologyInc.,Latham,NY;SKFIndustriesInc.,
ISIHighlyCitedResearcherinMaterialsSciencesince King of Prussia, PA; IBM, Tucson, AZ; and IBM Al-
2007andinBiologyandBiochemistryin2013;ISITop maden Research Center, San Jose, CA. He has held
5%CitedAuthorsforJournalsinChemistry,2011),and visiting professorships at University of California at
60C technical reports. He has also edited 50C books Berkeley, USA; University of Cambridge, UK; Tech-
and holds 20 US and foreign patents. He is coeditor nical University Vienna, Austria; University of Paris,
of Springer NanoScience and Technology Series and Orsay, France; ETH Zurich, Switzerland; EPFL Lau-
alsoofMicrosystemTechnologies,andisaPNASEd- sanne, Switzerland; University of Southampton, UK;
itorialBoardmember.Hehasgivenmorethan400in- UniversityofKragujevac,Serbia;TsinghuaUniversity;
vitedpresentationsonsixcontinentsandmorethan200 China, Harbin Institute, China; and KFUPM, Saudi
keynote/plenaryaddressesatmajorinternationalconfer- Arabia.
ences. https://nlbb.engineering.osu.edu/
X