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Springer Handbooks of Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics SpringerHandbooksprovide aconcisecompilationofapproved key information on methods of research, general principles, and functionalrelationshipsinphysics andengineering.Theworld’slead- ingexpertsinthefieldsofphysics andengineeringwillbeassignedby oneorseveralrenownededitorsto writethechapterscomprisingeach volume.Thecontentisselectedby theseexpertsfromSpringersources (books, journals, online content) andothersystematicandapproved recentpublicationsofphysicaland technicalinformation. Thevolumeswillbedesignedto beusefulasreadabledeskreference bookstogiveafastandcomprehen- siveoverviewandeasyretrievalof essential reliable key information, includingtables,graphs,andbibli- ographies.Referencestoextensive sourcesareprovided. Springer Handbook of Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics Gordon W. F. Drake (Ed.) WithCD-ROM,288Figuresand111Tables 123 Editor: Dr.GordonW.F.Drake DepartmentofPhysics UniversityofWindsor Windsor,OntarioN9B3P4 Canada AssistantEditor: Dr.MarkM.Cassar DepartmentofPhysics UniversityofWindsor Windsor,OntarioN9B3P4 Canada LibraryofCongressControlNumber: 2005931256 ISBN-10:0-387-20802-X e-ISBN:0-387-26308-X ISBN-13:978-0-387-20802-2 Printedonacidfreepaper (cid:1)c 2006,SpringerScience+BusinessMedia,Inc. 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Product liability: The publisher cannot guarantee the accuracy of any informationaboutdosageandapplicationcontainedinthisbook.Inevery individualcasetheusermustchecksuchinformationbyconsultingthe relevantliterature. Productionandtypesetting:LE-TeXGbR,Leipzig Handbookcoordinator:Dr.W.Skolaut,Heidelberg Typography,layoutandillustrations:schreiberVIS,Seeheim Coverdesign:eStudioCalamarSteinen,Barcelona Coverproduction:design&productionGmbH,Heidelberg Printingandbinding:StürtzGmbH,Würzburg SPIN10948934 100/3141/YL 543210 V Handbook of Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics Editor GordonW.F.Drake DepartmentofPhysics,UniversityofWindsor,Windsor,Ontario,Canada [email protected] AssistantEditor MarkM.Cassar DepartmentofPhysics,UniversityofWindsor,Windsor,Ontario,Canada [email protected] AdvisoryBoard WilliamE.Baylis–Atoms DepartmentofPhysics,UniversityofWindsor,Windsor,Ontario,Canada [email protected] RobertN.Compton–Scattering,Experiment OakRidgeNationalLaboratory,OakRidge,Tennessee,USA [email protected] M.RaymondFlannery–Scattering,Theory SchoolofPhysics,GeorgiaInstituteofTechnology,Atlanta,Georgia,USA fl[email protected] BrianR.Judd–MathematicalMethods DepartmentofPhysics,TheJohnsHopkinsUniversity,Baltimore,Maryland,USA [email protected] KateP.Kirby–Molecules,Theory Harvard-SmithsonianCenterforAstrophysics,Cambridge,Massachusetts,USA [email protected] PierreMeystre–OpticalPhysics OpticalSciencesCenter,TheUniversityofArizona,Tucson,Arizona,USA [email protected] VII Foreword by Herbert Walther The Handbook of Atomic, Molecular and Optical dynamics and as a consequence led (AMO)Physicsgivesanin-depthsurveyofthepresent toabetterunderstandingofthestruc- statusofthisfieldofphysics.Itisanextendedversion tureofatomsandmoleculesandtheir ofthefirstissuetowhichnewandemergingfieldshave respective interaction with radiation been added. The selection of topics thus traces the re- and to the attainment of unprece- cent historic development of AMO physics. The book dented accuracy. AMO physics also givesstudents,scientists,engineers,andotherinterested influenced the development in other people a comprehensive introduction and overview. It fields of physics, chemistry, astron- combinesintroductoryexplanationswithdescriptionsof omy,andbiology.Itisanastonishing Prof.Dr.HerbertWalther phenomena, discussions of results achieved, and gives fact that AMO physics constantly a useful selectionof references to allow more detailed went through periods where new phenomena were studies,makingthehandbookverysuitableasadesktop found, giving rise to an enormous revival of this area. reference. Examplesarethemaserandlaserandtheirmanyappli- AMO physics is an important and basic field of cations,leadingtoabetterunderstandingofthebasics physics.Itprovidedtheessentialimpulseleadingtothe and the detection of new phenomena, and new possi- developmentofmodernphysicsatthebeginningofthe bilities such as laser cooling of atoms, squeezing, and lastcentury.Wehavetorememberthatatthattimenot other nonlinear behaviour. Recently, coherent interfer- every physicist believed in the existence of atoms and ence effects allowedslow or fast lighttobe produced. molecules.ItwasduetoAlbertEinstein,whoseworkwe Finally,theachievementofBose–Einsteincondensation commemoratethisyearwiththeworldyearofphysics, in dilute media has opened up a wide range of new that this view changed. It was Einstein’s microscopic phenomenaforstudy.Specialquantumphenomenaare viewofmolecularmotionthatledtoawayofcalculating leading to new applications for transmission of infor- Avogadro’snumberandthesizeofmoleculesbystudy- mationandforcomputing.Controlofphotonemission ing their motion. This work was the basis of his PhD through specially designed cavities allows controlled thesissubmittedtotheUniversityofZurichinJuly1905 anddeterministicgenerationofphotonsopeningtheway andafterpublicationbecameEinstein’smostquotedpa- forasecureinformationtransfer. per.Furthermore,combiningkinetictheoryandclassical Furthernewpossibilitiesareemerging,suchasthe thermodynamicsledhimtotheconclusionthatthedis- techniques for producing attosecond laser pulses and placementofamicroparticleinBrownianmotionvaries laser pulses with known and controlled phase relation asthesquarerootoftime.Theexperimentaldemonstra- between the envelope and carrier wave, allowing syn- tion of this law by Jean Perrin three years later finally thesis of even shorter pulses in a controlled manner. afforded striking proof that atoms and molecules are Furthermore,laserpulsesmaysoonbeavailablethatare areality.TheenergyquantumpostulatedbyEinsteinin sufficientlyintensetoallowpolarizationofthevacuum order to explain the photoelectric effect was the basis field. Another interesting development is the genera- forthesubsequentlyinitiateddevelopmentofquantum tion of artificial atoms, e.g., quantum dots, opening physics,leadingtoarevolutioninphysicsandmanynew afieldwherenanotechnologymeetsatomicphysics.It applicationsinscienceandtechnology. is thus evident that AMO physics is still going strong The results of AMO physics initiated the devel- andwillalsoprovidenewandinterestingopportunities opment of quantum mechanics and quantum electro- andresultsinthefuture. VIII IX Preface Theyear2005hasbeenofficiallydeclaredbytheUnited high precision theory and measure- NationstobetheInternationalYearofPhysicstocom- ment are opening the possibility to memoratethethreefamouspapersofEinsteinpublished detectacosmologicalvariationofthe in1905.Itisafittingtributetotheimpactofhiswork fundamentalconstantswithtime.All thattheSpringerHandbookofAtomic,Molecular,and of these topics hold the promise of OpticalPhysicsshouldbepublishedincoincidencewith important engineering and techno- this event. Virtually all of AMO Physics rests on the logical applications that come with foundationsestablishedbyEinsteinin1905(including advances in fundamental science. afourthpaperonrelativityandhisthesis)andhissub- ThemoreestablishedareasofAMO Prof.GordonW.F.Drake sequent work. In addition to the theory of relativity, Physicscontinuetoprovidethebasic for which he is best known, Einstein ushered in the dataandbroadunderstandingofagreatwealthofunder- era of quantum mechanics with his explanation of the lyingprocessesneededforstudiesoftheenvironment, photoelectriceffect,andhedemonstratedtheinfluence andforastrophysicsandplasmaphysics. ofmolecularcollisionswithhisexplanationofBrown- Thesechangesandadvancesprovidemorethansuf- ianmotion.Healsolaidthetheoreticalfoundationsfor ficientjustificationtoprepareathoroughlyrevisedand alloflaserphysicswithhisdiscovery(in1917)ofthe updatedAtomic,MolecularandOpticalPhysicsHand- necessityoftheprocessofstimulatedemission,andhis book for the Springer Handbook Program. The aim discussionsoftheEinstein–Podolsky–RosenGedanken is to present the basic ideas, methods, techniques and experiment(in1935)led,throughBell’sinequalities,to results of the field at a level thatis accessible to grad- currentworkonentangledstatesandquantuminforma- uate students and other researchers new to the field. tion.ThepastcenturyhasbeenaGoldenAgeforphysics References are meant to be a guide to the literature, ineverysenseoftheterm. ratherthanacomprehensivebibliography.Entirelynew Despite this history of unparalleled progress, the chaptershavebeenaddedonBose–Einsteincondensa- fieldofAMOPhysicscontinuestoadvancemorerapidly tion,quantuminformation,variationsofthefundamental thanever.AtthetimeofpublicationofanearlierHand- constants, and cavity ring-down spectroscopy. Other book published by AIP Press in 1996 I wrote “The chapters have been substantially expanded to include ever increasing power and versatility of lasers con- newtopicssuchasfastlightandslowlight.Theintent tinues to open up new areas for study.” Since then, istoprovideabookthatwillcontinuetobeavaluable two Nobel Prizes have been awarded for the cool- resourceandsourceofinspirationforbothstudentsand ing and trapping of atoms with lasers (Steven Chu, establishedresearchers. ClaudeCohen-Tannoudji,WilliamD.Phillipsin1997), I would like to acknowledge the important role and for the subsequent achievement of Bose–Einstein playedbythemembersoftheAdvisoryBoardintheir condensation in a dilute gas of trapped atoms (Eric continuing support of this project, and I would espe- A.Cornell,WolfgangKetterle,CarlE.Wiemanin2001). ciallyliketoacknowledgethetalentsofMarkCassaras Althoughthetopicofcoolingandtrappingwascovered AssistantEditor.Inadditiontokeepingtrackofthesub- intheAIPHandbook,Bose–Einsteincondensationwas missions and corresponding with authors, he read and barelymentioned.Sincethen,theliteraturehasexploded editedthenewmaterialforeverychaptertoensureuni- to nearly 2500 papers on Bose–Einstein condensation formityinstyleandscientificcontent,andhecomposed alone. Similarly, the topics of quantum information new material to be added to some of the chapters, as and quantum computing barely existed in 1995, and notedinthetext. have since become rapidly growing segments of the physicsliterature.Entirelynewtopicssuchas“fastlight” and “slow light” have emerged. Techniques for both February2005 GordonW.F.Drake XI List of Authors NigelG.Adams AnandK.Bhatia UniversityofGeorgia NASAGoddardSpaceFlightCenter DepartmentofChemistry LaboratoryforAstronomy&SolarPhysics Athens,GA30602-2556,USA Code681,UV/OpticalAstronomyBranch e-mail:[email protected] Greenbelt,MD20771,USA e-mail:[email protected] MironYa.Amusia TheHebrewUniversity HansBichsel RacahInstituteofPhysics UniversityofWashington Jerusalem,91904,Israel CenterforExperimentalNuclearPhysicsand e-mail:[email protected] Astrophysics(CENPA) 121122ndAvenueEast NilsAndersen Seattle,WA98112-3534,USA UniversityofCopenhagen e-mail:[email protected] NielsBohrInstitute Universitetsparken5 RobertW.Boyd Copenhagen,DK-2100,Denmark UniversityofRochester e-mail:[email protected] DepartmentofPhysicsandAstronomy Rochester,NY14627,USA NigelR.Badnell e-mail:[email protected] UniversityofStrathclyde DepartmentofPhysics JohnM.Brown Glasgow,G40NG,UnitedKingdom UniversityofOxford e-mail:[email protected] PhysicalandTheoreticalChemistryLaboratory SouthParksRoad ThomasBartsch Oxford,OX13QZ,England GeorgiaInstituteofTechnology e-mail:[email protected] SchoolofPhysics 837StateStreet HenryBuijs Atlanta,GA30332-0430,USA ABBBomemInc. e-mail:[email protected] 585,CharestBoulevardEast Suite300 KlausBartschat Québec,PQG1K9H4,Canada DrakeUniversity e-mail:[email protected] DepartmentofPhysicsandAstronomy DesMoines,IA50311,USA PhilipBurke e-mail:[email protected] TheQueen’sUniversityofBelfast DepartmentofAppliedMathematics WilliamE.Baylis andTheoreticalPhysics UniversityofWindsor Belfast,NorthernIrelandBT71NN,UK DepartmentofPhysics e-mail:[email protected] Windsor,ONN9B3P4,Canada e-mail:[email protected] XII ListofAuthors DeniseCaldwell DerrickCrothers NationalScienceFoundation Queen’sUniversityBelfast PhysicsDivision DepartmentofAppliedMathematicsand 4201WilsonBoulevard TheoreticalPhysics Arlington,VA22230,USA UniversityRoad e-mail:[email protected] Belfast,NorthernIrelandBT71NN,UK e-mail:[email protected] MarkM.Cassar UniversityofWindsor LorenzoJ.Curtis DepartmentofPhysics UniversityofToledo Windsor,ONN9B3P4,Canada DepartmentofPhysicsandAstronomy e-mail:[email protected] 2801WestBancroftStreet Toledo,OH43606-3390,USA KellyChance e-mail:[email protected] Harvard-SmithsonianCenterforAstrophysics 60GardenStreet AlexanderDalgarno Cambridge,MA02138-1516,USA Harvard-SmithsonianCenterforAstrophysics e-mail:[email protected] 60GardenStreet Cambridge,MA02138,USA RaymondY.Chiao e-mail:[email protected] 366LeconteHall U.C.Berkeley AbigailJ.Dobbyn Berkeley,CA94720-7300,USA Max-Planck-InstitutfürStrömungsforschung e-mail:[email protected] Göttingen,37073,Germany LewCocke GordonW.F.Drake KansasStateUniversity UniversityofWindsor DepartmentofPhysics DepartmentofPhysics Manhattan,KS66506,USA 401SunsetSt. e-mail:[email protected] Windsor,ONN9B3P4,Canada e-mail:[email protected] JamesS.Cohen LosAlamosNationalLaboratory JosephH.Eberly AtomicandOpticalTheory UniversityofRochester LosAlamos,NM87545,USA DepartmentofPhysicsandAstronomy e-mail:[email protected] andInstituteofOptics Rochester,NY14627-0171,USA BerndCrasemann e-mail:[email protected] UniversityofOregon DepartmentofPhysics GuyT.Emery Eugene,OR97403-1274,USA BowdoinCollege e-mail:[email protected] DepartmentofPhysics 15ChestnutRd. DavidR.Crosley Brunswick,ME04011,USA SRIInternational e-mail:[email protected] MolecularPhysicsLaboratory 333RavenswoodAve.,PS085 MenloPark,CA94025-3493,USA e-mail:[email protected]