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Springer Aerospace Technology Florian Sellmaier Thomas Uhlig Michael Schmidhuber Editors Spacecraft Operations Second Edition Springer Aerospace Technology SeriesEditors SergioDeRosa,DII,UniversityofNaplesFedericoII,Napoli,Italy YaoZheng,SchoolofAeronauticsandAstronautics,ZhejiangUniversity, Hangzhou,Zhejiang,China ElenaPopova,AirNavigationBridgeRussia,Russia,Russia Theseriesexploresthetechnologyandthesciencerelatedtotheaircraftandspace- craftincludingconcept,design,assembly,controlandmaintenance.Thetopicscover aircraft,missiles,spacevehicles,aircraftenginesandpropulsionunits.Thevolumes oftheseriespresentthefundamentals,theapplicationsandtheadvancesinallthe fieldsrelatedtoaerospaceengineering,including: (cid:129) structuralanalysis, (cid:129) aerodynamics, (cid:129) aeroelasticity, (cid:129) aeroacoustics, (cid:129) flightmechanicsanddynamics (cid:129) orbitalmaneuvers, (cid:129) avionics, (cid:129) systemsdesign, (cid:129) materialstechnology, (cid:129) launchtechnology, (cid:129) payloadandsatellitetechnology, (cid:129) spaceindustry,medicineandbiology. Theseries’scopeincludesmonographs,professionalbooks,advancedtextbooks,as wellasselectedcontributionsfromspecializedconferencesandworkshops. Thevolumesoftheseriesaresingle-blindpeer-reviewed. To submit a proposal or request further information, please contact: Mr. Pierpaolo Riva at [email protected] (Europe and Americas) [email protected](China) TheseriesisindexedinScopusandCompendex Moreinformationaboutthisseriesathttps://link.springer.com/bookseries/8613 · · Florian Sellmaier Thomas Uhlig Michael Schmidhuber Editors Spacecraft Operations Second Edition Editors FlorianSellmaier ThomasUhlig GermanSpaceOperationsCenter(GSOC) GermanSpaceOperationsCenter(GSOC) GermanAerospaceCenter(DLR) GermanAerospaceCenter(DLR) Oberpfaffenhofen,Germany Oberpfaffenhofen,Germany MichaelSchmidhuber GermanSpaceOperationsCenter(GSOC) GermanAerospaceCenter(DLR) Oberpfaffenhofen,Germany ISSN1869-1730 ISSN1869-1749 (electronic) SpringerAerospaceTechnology ISBN978-3-030-88592-2 ISBN978-3-030-88593-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88593-9 1stedition:©Springer-VerlagWien2015 2ndedition:©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringer NatureSwitzerlandAG2022 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher,whether thewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuse ofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,and transmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilar ordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. 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ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Foreword to the First Edition Timing is everything—this is especially true for spaceflight operations. 2014 is a specialyearfortheEuropeanspacecommunity,theyearthatstartedwiththewake- upofROSETTA,ESA’scometchaser,withPhilae,theGermancometlander,which isonitsextraterrestrialvoyagesince2004.Ithasbeenawokenfromhishibernation andisprovidinguswithdataduringitscarefullyplannedfirstapproachonacomet— 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. InNovember2014,themissionculminatesinthedescentofthelanderPHILAEto thesurfaceofthecomet’sfrozennucleus—theresultingmeasurementsmayhelpus answersomeofthefundamentalquestionsabouttheevolutionoflifeonearth.Comets are considered as veterans of our solar system—their analysis provides insights in theearlydaysofourgalactichome. Anotherfactwhichmakes2014quitespecialfortheEuropeanspaceflightcommu- nityisthemissionoftwoEuropeanstotheInternationalSpaceStation—neverbefore haveweseentwolongdurationESAmissionswithinoneyear.AlexanderGersthas thechancetobeatThomasReiter’srecordofloggingthelongesttimeinonespace missionforaGerman.SamanthaCristoforettiisonlythesecondESAfemaleastro- naut—andthefirstItalianwomaninspace.Duringtheirstayinorbit,bothwillcollect dataformanymonthsofscientificresearchanddefinitelyawakethepublicinterest inspaceflightintheirhomecountries. InthisfascinatingyearfallsthepublicationofthebookSpaceflightOperations. It discusses important principles and aspects of the operation of space vehicles. DesignatedexpertsoftheDLR’sGermanSpaceOperationsCenter(GSOC),ESA’s EuropeanSpaceOperationsCenter(ESOC)andtheUniversityofSouthamptonhave put together a handbook for operations, which provides not only a good overview butalsotheexpertbackgroundinformation,tomakethebooknotonlyatheoretical description,butavividtestimonialofmanyyearsofexperience.BoththeGSOCand ESOC spaceflight operations centers were founded in 1967 and GSOC’s manned spaceflighthistorydatesbackto1985withtheGermanspacelabmissionD-1. Theauthorsofthisbookareinvolvedinmanyofthemostexcitingspacemissions and projects currently ongoing: Columbus and the International Space Station, ROSETTAandthelanderPHILAE,TerraSAR-XandTandem-X,theEuropeanData v vi ForewordtotheFirstEdition RelaySystemEDRSandthespaceroboticmissionDEOS.Theyhaveworkedduring thepreparation andexecution phases,actingintheirrolesasmanagers, engineers, planners, subsystem specialists and flight controllers. It is inspiring to read their articlesandtolistentotheir“lessonslearnt.” Itismydesirethatthebookwillprovidebothaninterestandstimulusforfuture missions—andmayhelptoimprovesubsequentoperationsconcepts. Köln,Germany JanWörner ChairmanoftheExecutiveBoardof theGermanAerospaceCenter(DLR) Preface to the Second Edition Thisbookoriginallygrewoutofthe“SpacecraftOperationsCourse,”a1-weeklecture and exercise series that has been held annually at the German Space Operations Center(GSOC)inOberpfaffenhofenforthepast21years.Thehandout,whichwas a collection of slides in the very beginning, changed into a book over time. Still, we realized that there is currently no book that deals exclusively with spacecraft operations, so we expanded our project by adding to and detailing the chapters so thatwecouldcompleteitinbookform.Asbefore,mostofthechaptersarebased on lectures from our current “Spacecraft Operations Course.” However, the target audienceofthisbookisnotonlytheparticipantsofthecoursebutalsostudentsof technicalorscientificcourses,aswellastechnicallyinterestedpeoplewhowantto gainadeeperunderstandingofspacecraftoperations. Five years after the publication date of the first edition, we felt that a thorough revisionandexpansionofourbookwasnecessary.Thiseffortresultedinfournew chapters:Flightprocedures,humanfactors,groundstationoperation,aswellassoft- wareandsystems.Inaddition,somechaptershavebeenextensivelysupplemented. Theentirebookhasbeenbroughtuptodate,thelanguagehasbeenrevisedandwe decidedtoimproveitsstructure:Thechaptersaregroupedintosevenparts: The first part of the book (Part I) gives a brief summary of the space segment, introducingthespaceenvironment,spacesystemsengineeringandspacecommuni- cations.Thenextfourpartsdealwiththeclassicalfieldsofspaceflightoperations: The phases of mission operations (Part II) are described in chronological order, from preparation to execution and the final evaluation (flight experience). These chaptersarenowcomplementedbychaptersonflightproceduresandhumanfactors. Part III addresses ground and communications infrastructure, i.e., cross-mission support services. This part is structured according to the different services. The flightdynamicssystem(PartIV)focusesonattitudeandorbitcontrolofthesatellite platform, while mission planning (Part V) ensures effective payload management andutilization.Thelasttwopartsdealwiththedetailsofspecificmissiontypes:Part VIdescribestheoperationaltasksofthevarioussubsystemsofaclassicalunmanned satelliteinEarthorbit.PartVIIdiscussesthespecialrequirementsofspecificmission typescausedbythepresenceofastronauts,bytheapproachofasatellitetoanother vii viii PrefacetotheSecondEdition targetsatellite,orbyinterplanetarycruisesandlandingoperationsonothercelestial bodies. Wewouldliketotakethisopportunitytothankallcontributorstothisopus:First of all, all of the authors for their contributions, which they provided beside their ongoing operational work. A very big thank you to our design team and editorial officeJulianevonGeisau,YasminDorostan,AdrianeWoitoandAngelicaLenzen, whohavebeeninstrumentalinsupportingusthroughoutthesecondedition.Many thanks to Nick Jost,who supported us linguistically as a “native speaker.” Thanks alsotoMartinPetersforhisassistance.Lastbutnotleast,ourthanksgotoPierpaolo RivaatSpringer-Verlagforhissupervisionduringtherevisionofthisbook.Now,it istimetoputthesecondeditionintoprint—wehopeyouenjoyreadingit. Oberpfaffenhofen,Germany FlorianSellmaier February2022 ThomasUhlig MichaelSchmidhuber Contents PartI OverviewSpaceSegment 1 SpaceEnvironment ............................................ 3 AdrianR.L.TatnallandHaukeFiedler 1.1 Introduction ............................................. 3 1.2 LaunchVehicle .......................................... 4 1.2.1 Acoustic/VibrationLevels .......................... 4 1.2.2 StaticAcceleration ................................ 5 1.2.3 MechanicalShock ................................ 6 1.3 SpacecraftOperationalEnvironment ........................ 6 1.3.1 Vacuum ......................................... 6 1.3.2 SolarRadiationFlux .............................. 7 1.3.3 ParticleRadiation ................................. 8 1.3.4 RadiationBelts ................................... 8 1.3.5 Atmosphere ...................................... 11 1.3.6 SpaceDebris ..................................... 13 1.3.7 GravityandMagneticFields ....................... 15 References .................................................... 16 2 SpacecraftDesign ............................................. 17 AdrianR.L.Tatnall 2.1 DefinitionofSystemsEngineering .......................... 17 2.2 ObjectivesandRequirements .............................. 19 2.3 DesignDriversandTrade-Offs ............................. 23 2.4 ConcurrentEngineering ................................... 25 References .................................................... 25 3 FundamentalsofSpaceCommunications ........................ 27 FelixHuber 3.1 Introduction ............................................. 27 3.2 Baseband ............................................... 28 3.2.1 SourceCoding ................................... 28 ix