Space Transportation: A Systems Approach to Analysis and Design

724 Pages·1999·38.938 MB·English

by  W. Hammond

Space Transportation: A Systems
Approach to Analysis and Design
Walter Hammond
AIAA
EDUCATION SERIES
J. S. Przemieniecki
Series Editor-in-Chief
Air Force Institute of Technology
Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio
Published by
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., Reston, Virginia
1 2 3 45
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hammond, Walter E., 1947-
Space transportation / Walter E. Hammond.
p. cm.—(AIAA education series)
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN 1-56347-032-2 (alk. paper)
1. Space flight—Planning. 2. Space vehicles 3. Astronautics.
I. Title II. Series
TL790.H33 1999 629.47—dc21 99-37430
Copyright © 1999 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All
rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may
be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, or stored in a
data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Data and information appearing in this book are for informational purposes only. AIAA
is not responsible for any injury or damage resulting from use or reliance, nor does
AIAA warrant that use or reliance will be free from privately owned rights.
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This book is dedicated to the memory of my beloved father, whose forebearing
example, patience and persistence have served to illuminate the pathways of my life.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to acknowledge the invaluable contributions and assistance
provided by the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center's Space Transportation
Directorate which facilitated access to innumerable documents, reports, briefings
and technical papers; without which the publication of this work would have been
impossible. Special thanks go to Dr. John Przemieniecki, editor of the Educa-
tion Series, for his helpful guidance and to Mr. David Christensen of Lockheed
Martin Astronautics, who reviewed and commented upon the entire first draft
manuscript. Other contributors deserve special credit, including Charles Teixeira
at the NASA Johnson Space Center who drafted the Space Shuttle Chapter, Rick
Ballard of Sverdrup Technology, Inc. who drafted the Future Systems Chapter,
and Ed Dupnick, Dennis Smith, and Brian Johnson who furnished valuable source
material for Chapters 8 and 5. Finally, a special vote of thanks goes to the editorial
staff in the AIAA Book Department for essential final editing and preparation for
publication. Names and affiliations of these and other contributors to the book
appear following.
List of Contributors
Richard O. Ballard, Senior Engineer Dr. Pat R. Odom
Sverdrup Technology, Inc. SAIC Huntsville Operations
NASA/MSFC Group 6725 Odyssey Drive
620 Discovery Drive Huntsville, AL 35806
Huntsville, Alabama 35806
Dr. Jaroslaw Sobieszczanski-Sobieski
David L. Christensen Multidisciplinary Design Optimization
Manager of Business Development Mail Stop 242
Lockheed Martin Astronautics NASA Langley Research Center
Huntsville Operations 3 Langley Boulevard
Building 2, Suite 200 Hampton, VA 23681-0001
620 Discovery Drive
Dennis E. Smith
Huntsville, AL 35806
Planning & Operations
Dr. Edwin G. Dupnick Space Transportation Directorate
ECON, Inc. NASA/MSFC 35812
1120 NASA Road One, Suite 470 Charles Teixeira, Chief
Houston, TX 77058 System Definition Branch, M/C ET 2
NASA Johnson Space Center
Brian Johnson
Space Station Program Office Houston, Texas 77058
Mail Stop OB Dr. Thomas P. Tytula, P.E.
NASA Johnson Space Center Consulting Engineer
2101 NASA Road 1 11201 Dellcrest Drive, SE
Houston, TX 77058-3696 Huntsville, AL 35803
Dietrich E. Koelle, Ph.D. Dr. Robert E. Wong
TCS—TransCostSystems TRW Space & Technology Group
Liebigwig Redondo Beach, CA
Germany
Edgar Zapata
John W. Livingston Shuttle Process Engineering
Aeronautical Systems Center/XRED Fluid Systems Division, PK-G4
1970 Third Street, Suite 7 NASA Kennedy Space Center
Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 454433-7214 Florida 32899
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Table of
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. xiii
Chapter 1. Systems Engineering and Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
1.1 Introduction ....................................... 1
1.2 What Is Systems Engineering? ........................... 3
1.3 The System Engineer ................................. 6
.4 Systems and Systems Engineering ........................ 6
.5 The Systems Engineering Process ......................... 8
.6 Systems Engineering in a DoD Context .................... 14
.7 Documentation .................................... 19
.8 Military Systems Acquisition Processes .................... 24
.9 Advanced Weapon System Research and Development ......... 41
.10 Comparison Between Commercial and DoD Program Phases ..... 47
. 11 Systems Engineering in a NASA Context................... 52
.12 Systems Engineering Lessons Learned .................... 70
References ....................................... 73
Chapter 2. Systems Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75
2.1 A Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 75
2.2 Background—Development Environment Facing Today's
Launch Vehicles .................................. 77
2.3 Importance of Software ............................... 81
2.4 The Design Process: An Overview ....................... 86
2.5 Systems Engineering Flavor to the Design Process ............ 99
2.6 System Integration ................................. 100
2.7 System Interfaces and Control ......................... 102
2.8 Tools and Methodologies ............................ 106
2.9 Systems Analysis, Modeling, and the Trade Study Process ...... Ill
2.10 Basic Launch System Tradeoff Analysis Methodology . ........ 116
2.11 System Effectiveness Studies .......................... 125
2.12 Vehicle Systems Design Lessons Learned ................. 130
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 134
Chapter 3. Transportation System Architecture
and Infrastructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 135
3.1 Introduction ..................................... 135
3.2 Historical Drivers for Space Infrastructure ................. 142
3.3 Political Considerations ............................. 149
VII
VIII
3.4 The National Mission Model .......................... 150
3.5 The Private Sector and Commercialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 151
3.6 Development of Commercial Space Transportation Architecture
and System Concepts ............................. 153
3.7 Cost Drivers for Space Transportation Architecture Options ..... 160
3.8 Recommended Improvements to Space
Transportation Architectures ........................ 162
3.9 Planning for Future Space Infrastructure .................. 166
3.10 Transportation Infrastructure for Moon Missions ............ 169
3.11 Transportation Infrastructure for Mars Missions ............. 170
3.12 Future Direction of the U.S. Space Program ................ 174
References ...................................... 178
Chapter 4. The U.S. Space Shuttle—Harbinger of Reusable Space
Transportation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 181
4.1 Introduction ..................................... 181
4.2 Historical Background .............................. 183
4.3 Development of Shuttle System ........................ 184
4.4 Orbiter Development ............................... 208
4.5 Current Shuttle Vehicle and Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 211
4.6 Shuttle Evolution and Future Growth .................... 222
References ...................................... 227
Chapter 5. Expendable Space Transportation Systems ........... 229
5.1 Introduction ..................................... 229
5.2 Expendable Launch Vehicle Design ..................... 231
5.3 History Behind Existing ELVs ......................... 232
5.4 Evolving the Expendable Launch Vehicle ................. 266
5.5 Summary ....................................... 270
References ...................................... 273
Chapter 6. Reusable Space Launch Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 275
6.1 Background—Previous Efforts at Hypersonic Flight .......... 275
6.2 Early Aerospace Plane Conceptual Studies (Government
Baseline TAV) .................................. 290
6.3 The X-Series of Research Aircraft ...................... 301
6.4 Challenges Facing Manned Aerospace Planes . .............. 301
6.5 Manned Reusable Systems Development Programs—Past
and Ongoing ................................... 304
6.6 NASA Reusable Launch Vehicle Studies in 1990s ............ 314
6.7 Hypersonic Waveriders .............................. 316
6.8 The Importance of Vehicle Health Management ............. 320
6.9 Future Reusable Space Launch Vehicles .................. 322
References ...................................... 324
Chapter 7. Operations and Support Systems .................. 329
7.1 Introduction ..................................... 329
7.2 Launch Operations Definition ......................... 329
IX
7.3 Existing Launch Operations and Facilities ................. 331
7.4 Shuttle Mission Operations ........................... 337
7.5 Canaveral Air Force Station—Launch Services for
Expendable Vehicles .............................. 343
7.6 Facility Requirements for Launch Operations ............... 354
7.7 Obstacles to Streamlining Launch Operations ............... 363
7.8 Evolutionary Launch Operations Strategies ................ 369
7.9 Designing for Future Expendable Launch Vehicle
Launch Operations ............................... 372
7.10 Improving Existing Launch Operations ................... 374
7.11 Future Launch Operations ............................ 376
References ...................................... 378
Chapter 8. Systems Cost Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 381
8.1 Introduction ..................................... 381
8.2 Crucial Importance of Reducing Launch Costs .............. 384
8.3 Modeling Costs ................................... 388
8.4 Cost Estimating Techniques ........................... 393
8.5 The Parametric Cost Estimation Process .................. 395
8.6 Launch Vehicle Costs ............................... 401
8.7 Comparison Among Space Cost Models .................. 421
8.8 Containing Launch Vehicle Costs ....................... 422
8.9 The Future ...................................... 427
References ...................................... 428
Chapter 9. Systems and Multidisciplinary Design Optimization .... 431
9.1 Introduction ..................................... 431
9.2 Launch Vehicle Conceptual Design Problem ............... 433
9.3 Modeling Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 436
9.4 Optimization Strategies and Applications .................. 439
9.5 Collaborative Work Environment of the Future .............. 450
9.6 Summary ....................................... 452
References ...................................... 454
Chapter 10. Systems Technology Development ................ 457
10.1 Introduction ..................................... 457
10.2 Vehicle Technologies ............................... 462
10.3 Propulsion Technologies ............................. 465
10.4 Ground and Mission Operations Technologies .............. 466
10.5 Assessing Technological Options ....................... 469
10.6 Technology Transfer and Commercialization ............... 478
10.7 Applying a Commercial Development Process for Access
to Space ...................................... 493
10.8 Summary ....................................... 502
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 503
Chapter 11. Program Planning, Management, and Evaluation ..... 505
11.1 Introduction ..................................... 505
11.2 Management Trends ................................ 506