Table Of Content

Enteria Akbarzadeh Solar energy is available all over the world in different intensities. E S Theoretically, the solar energy available on the surface of the earth is enough n o l to support the energy requirements of the entire planet. However, in reality, g a progress and development of solar science and technology depends to a large in r e E extent on human desires and needs. This is due to the various barriers to e n overcome and to deal with the economics of practical utilization of solar energy. r e i This book will introduce the rapid development and progress in the field n r g of solar energy applications for science and technology: the advancement in g y the field of biological processes & chemical processes; electricity production; A S p mechanical operations & building operations enhanced by solar energy. c p i The volume covers bio-hydrogen production and other biological processes l e i n related to solar energy; chemical processes for the production of hydrogen from c a c water and other endothermic processes using solar energy; the development e t of thermo-electric production through solar energy; the development of solar i s o a ponds for electric energy production; the mechanical operation with solar n n s energy; the building operation with solar energy optimization and urban d planning. This book is an invaluable resource for scientists who need the scientific and technological knowledge of the wide coverage of solar energy sciences and engineering applications. This will further encourage researchers, scientists, Napoleon Enteria engineers and students to stimulate the use of solar energy as an alternative energy source. Aliakbar Akbarzadeh Solar Energy Sciences and Engineering Applications an informa business Solar Energy Sciences and Engineering Applications TThhiiss ppaaggee iinntteennttiioonnaallllyy lleefftt bbllaannkk Solar Energy Sciences and Engineering Applications Napoleon Enteria Enteria Grün Energietechnik,Davao,Philippines Aliakbar Akbarzadeh RMIT University,Melbourne, Australia Coverillustration: PhotovoltaicInstallationinDemonstrationBuilding,YonseiUniversity,Incheon,SouthKorea. Photographer:NapoleonEnteria CRCPress/BalkemaisanimprintoftheTaylor&FrancisGroup,aninformabusiness ©2014Taylor&FrancisGroup,London,UK TypesetbyMPSLimited,Chennai,India PrintedandBoundbyCPIGroup(UK)Ltd,Croydon,CR04YY Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationortheinformationcontained hereinmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinany formorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,byphotocopying,recordingor otherwise,withoutwrittenpriorpermissionfromthepublisher. Althoughallcareistakentoensureintegrityandthequalityofthispublication andtheinformationherein,noresponsibilityisassumedbythepublishersnor theauthorforanydamagetothepropertyorpersonsasaresultofoperation oruseofthispublicationand/ortheinformationcontainedherein. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Enteria,Napoleon. Solarenergysciencesandengineeringapplications/NapoleonEnteria, EnteriaGrünEnergietechnik,Davao,Philippines,AliakbarAkbarzadeh,RMITUniversity,Melbourne,Australia. pagescm Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN978-1-138-00013-1(hardback) 1. Solarenergy. I. Akbarzadeh,Aliakbar. II.Title. TJ810.E58 2013 621.47—dc23 2013041799 Publishedby: CRCPress/Balkema P.O.Box11320,2301EHLeiden,TheNetherlands e-mail:[email protected] www.crcpress.com–www.taylorandfrancis.com ISBN:978-1-138-00013-1(Hbk) ISBN:978-0-203-76205-9(eBookPDF) Table of contents Preface xv Abouttheeditors xvii 1 Physicsofsolarenergyanditsapplications 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Solarenergyandenergydemand 1 1.3 Solarenergyutilizations 3 1.4 Perspective 5 2 Exergyanalysisofsolarradiationprocesses 7 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Exergy 8 2.2.1 Definitionofexergy 8 2.2.2 Exergyannihilationlaw 10 2.2.3 Exergyofsubstance 12 2.2.4 Exergyofphotongas 17 2.2.5 Exergyofradiationemission 19 2.2.6 Exergyofradiationflux 25 2.3 Thermodynamicanalysis 31 2.3.1 Significanceofthermodynamicanalysis 31 2.3.2 Energybalanceequations 32 2.3.3 Exergybalanceequations 36 2.3.4 Processefficiency 41 2.4 Solarradiationprocesses 45 2.4.1 Conversionofsolarradiationintoheat 45 2.4.2 Solarcylindrical-paraboliccooker 62 2.4.3 Solarchimneypowerplant 71 2.4.4 Photosynthesis 84 2.4.5 Photovoltaic 91 3 Exergyanalysisofsolarenergysystems 97 3.1 Introduction 97 3.2 Energyandexergyaspectsandanalyses 98 vi Table of contents 3.3 Casestudies 100 3.3.1 Casestudy1:Exergyanalysisofanintegratedsolar,ORC systemforpowerproduction 100 3.3.2 Casestudy2:Exergyanalysisofsolarphotovoltaic/thermal (PV/T)systemforpowerandheatproduction 105 3.3.3 Casestudy3:Exergyassessmentofanintegratedsolar PV/Tandtripleeffectabsorptioncoolingsystemfor hydrogenandcoolingproduction 111 3.4 Concludingremarks 116 4 Solarenergycollectionandstorage 119 4.1 Solarthermalenergycollectors 119 4.1.1 Overview 119 4.1.2 Flatplatesolarenergycollectors 120 4.1.3 Evacuatedtubecollectors 121 4.1.4 Collectorcomponents 122 4.2 Integralcollectorstoragesystems 124 4.2.1 Integralpassivesolarwaterheaters 124 4.2.2 Saltgradientsolarponds 124 4.3 Concentrators 126 4.3.1 Introduction 126 4.3.2 Concentrationsystems 126 4.4 Solarwaterheating 128 4.4.1 Overview 128 4.4.2 Applicabilityofparticularcollectortypestospecificoutlet temperaturesanddiffusefractions 129 4.4.3 Freezeprotectionmethods 131 4.4.4 Sensibleandlatentheatstorage 133 4.4.5 Analytical representation of thermosyphon solar energy waterheater 134 4.4.6 Solarwaterheaterdesign 137 4.5 Solarenergycollectionandstoragefordryingcrops 140 4.6 Solarenergycollectorandstorageforthermalpowergeneration 142 4.7 Overallsystemoptimization 142 5 Basicsofthephotovoltaicthermalmodule 149 5.1 Introduction 149 5.2 PV/Tdevices 151 5.2.1 LiquidPV/Tcollector 153 5.2.2 AirPV/Tcollector 154 5.2.3 VentilatedPVwithheatrecovery 157 5.2.4 PV/Tconcentrator 159 5.3 PV/Tmoduleconcepts 160 5.3.1 DifferenttypesofPV/Tmodules 161 5.4 TechniquestoinprovePV/Tperformance 162 5.5 Conclusion 165 Table of contents vii 6 Thermalmodellingofparabolictroughcollectors 171 6.1 Introduction 171 6.2 Theenergymodel 176 6.2.1 ConvectionheattransferbetweentheHTFandthe receiverpipe 178 6.2.2 Conductionheattransferthroughthereceiverpipewall 179 6.2.3 Heattransferfromthereceiverpipetotheglassenvelope 180 6.2.4 Conductionheattransferthroughtheglassenvelope 182 6.2.5 Heattransferfromtheglassenvelopetotheatmosphere 182 6.2.6 Solarirradiationabsorption 184 6.3 Codetesting 187 6.4 Conclusions 191 7 Salinitygradientsolarponds 195 7.1 Introduction 195 7.2 Solarpond–designphilosophy 197 7.2.1 Sustainableuseofresources 197 7.2.2 Bestsitecharacteristics 198 7.2.3 Performanceandsizing 198 7.2.4 Liner,saltandwater 199 7.2.5 Transientperformanceprediction 201 7.3 Solarpond–constructionandoperation 202 7.3.1 Set-upandmaintenance 202 7.3.2 Turbiditycontrol 204 7.3.3 Heatextraction 205 7.3.4 Performancemonitoring 206 7.3.5 EEE(Energy,EnvironmentalandEconomic)benefit evaluation 206 7.4 Solarponds–worldwide 209 7.4.1 Solarponds–Israel 209 7.4.2 Solarponds–Australia 209 7.4.3 Solarponds–USA 210 7.4.4 Solarponds–Tibet,China 212 7.4.5 Solarponds–India 213 7.5 Solarponds–applications 214 7.5.1 Heating 214 7.5.2 Aquaculture 214 7.5.3 Desalination 215 7.5.4 Powerproduction 215 7.6 Futuredirections 215 8 Thesolarthermalelectrochemicalproductionofenergetic molecules:Step 219 8.1 Introduction 219 8.2 Solarthermalelectrochemicalproductionofenergeticmolecules: Anoverview 221 8.2.1 STEPtheoreticalbackground 221 viii Table of contents 8.2.2 STEPsolartochemicalenergyconversionefficiency 225 8.2.3 IdentificationofSTEPconsistentendothermicprocesses 230 8.3 Demonstratedstepprocesses 233 8.3.1 STEPhydrogen 233 8.3.2 STEPcarboncapture 233 8.3.3 STEPiron 239 8.3.4 STEPchlorineandmagnesiumproduction(chloride electrolysis) 244 8.4 Stepconstraints 246 8.4.1 STEPlimitingequations 246 8.4.2 PredictedSTEPefficienciesforsolarsplittingofCO 247 2 8.4.3 ScaleabilityofSTEPprocesses 249 8.5 Conclusions 250 9 SolarhydrogenproductionandCO recycling 257 2 9.1 Sustainablefuelswithsolar-basedhyrogenproductionand carbondioxiderecycling 257 9.2 Solar-basedhydrogenproductionwithwatersplittingmethods 259 9.2.1 Solar-to-hydrogenefficiencyofwatersplitting processes 259 9.2.2 Matchingthetemperaturerequirementsofsolar-based hydrogenproductionmethods 261 9.2.3 Thermolysis,thermaldecompositionand thermochemicalmethods 262 9.2.4 Waterelectrolysis 267 9.2.5 Photoelectrolysisandphotoelectrochemicalwater splitting 270 9.2.6 Photochemical,photocatalytic,photodissociation, photodecomposition,andphotolysis 272 9.2.7 Hybridandotherhydrogenproductionmethods 275 9.3 Solar-basedCO recyclingwithhydrogen 277 2 9.4 Summary 281 10 Photoelectrochemicalcellsforhydrogenproductionfrom solarenergy 293 10.1 Introduction 293 10.2 Photoelectrochemicalcellssystemsoverview 293 10.2.1 Solarwater-splittingarrangements 293 10.2.2 Workingprinciplesofphotoelectrochemicalcellsfor water-splitting 297 10.2.3 Materialsoverview 299 10.2.4 Stabilityissues–photocorrosion 304 10.2.5 PECreactors 306 10.3 Electrochemicalimpendancespectroscopy 311 10.3.1 Fundamentals 312 10.3.2 Electricalanalogues 315 10.3.3 EISanalysisofPECcellsforwater-splitting 318 Table of contents ix 10.4 Fundamentalsinelectrochemistryappliedto photoelectrochemicalcells 320 10.4.1 Semiconductorenergy 321 10.4.2 Continuityandkineticequations 328 10.5 Peccellsbottlenecksandfutureprospects 333 11 Photobiohydrogenproductionandhigh-performance photobioreactor 343 11.1 Introduction 343 11.2 Generaldescriptionofphotobiohydrogenproduction 344 11.2.1 Photoautotrophichydrogenproduction 344 11.2.2 Photoheterotrophichydrogenproduction 347 11.2.3 Criticalissuesinphotobiohydrogenproduction 348 11.3 Geneticandmetabolicengineering 349 11.4 High-performancephotobioreactor 352 11.4.1 Modificationofphotobioreactorconfigurations 352 11.4.2 Optimizationoftheoperatingparameters 357 11.4.3 Applicationofcellimmobilization 361 11.5 Challengesandfuturedirections 367 12 Decontamination of water by combined solar advanced oxidation processesandbiotreatment 375 12.1 Introduction 375 12.2 Solarphoto-fenton 376 12.2.1 Solarphoto-Fentonhardware 378 12.3 Strategyforcombiningsolaradvancedoxidationprocessesand biotreatment 382 12.3.1 Averageoxidationstate 383 12.3.2 Activatedsludgerespirometry 384 12.3.3 Zahn-Wellenstest 386 12.3.4 Factorstobeconsideredindesigningacombined system 388 12.4 Combiningsolaradvancedoxidationprocessesand biotreatment:Casestudies 389 12.4.1 CasestudyA:AnunsuccessfulAOP/biological process 389 12.4.2 CasestudyB:AsuccessfulAOP/biologicalprocess 389 13 Solardrivenadvancedoxidationprocessesforwater decontaminationanddisinfection 395 13.1 Introduction 395 13.2 SolarradiationcollectionforAOPsapplications 396 13.3 Solarhomogenousphotocatalysis 398 13.3.1 Degradationoforganicpollutantsbysolardriven photo-Fentonprocesses 399 13.3.2 Microorganismsinactivationbysolardriven photo-Fentonprocesses 400