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Power Systems Ahmed Rachid · Aytac Goren · Victor Becerra · Jovana Radulovic · Sourav Khanna Solar Energy Engineering and Applications Power Systems Electrical power has been the technological foundation of industrial societies for many years. Although the systems designed to provide and apply electrical energyhavereachedahighdegreeofmaturity,unforeseenproblemsareconstantly encountered,necessitatingthedesignofmoreefficientandreliablesystemsbasedon noveltechnologies.ThebookseriesPowerSystemsisaimedatprovidingdetailed, accurateandsoundtechnicalinformationaboutthesenewdevelopmentsinelectrical powerengineering.Itincludestopicsonpowergeneration,storageandtransmission as well as electrical machines. The monographs and advanced textbooks in this series address researchers, lecturers, industrial engineers and senior students in electricalengineering. **PowerSystemsisindexedinScopus** Ahmed Rachid • Aytac Goren • Victor Becerra • Jovana Radulovic • Sourav Khanna Solar Energy Engineering and Applications AhmedRachid AytacGoren UFR-Sciences MechanicalEngineering UniversityofPicardieJulesVerne DokuzEylulUniversity Amiens,France Izmir,Türkiye VictorBecerra JovanaRadulovic SchoolofEnergyandElectronic SchoolofMechanical&Design Engineering Engineering UniversityofPortsmouth UniversityofPortsmouth Portsmouth,UK Portsmouth,UK SouravKhanna SchoolofEnergyandElectronic Engineering UniversityofPortsmouth Portsmouth,UK ISSN1612-1287 ISSN1860-4676 (electronic) PowerSystems ISBN978-3-031-20829-4 ISBN978-3-031-20830-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-20830-0 ©TheEditor(s)(ifapplicable)andTheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNatureSwitzerland AG2023 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsaresolelyandexclusivelylicensedbythePublisher,whether thewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuse ofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,and transmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilar ordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthispublication doesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevant protectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Thepublisher,theauthors,andtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthisbook arebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernortheauthorsor theeditorsgiveawarranty,expressedorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinorforany errorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade.Thepublisherremainsneutralwithregardtojurisdictional claimsinpublishedmapsandinstitutionalaffiliations. ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbytheregisteredcompanySpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG Theregisteredcompanyaddressis:Gewerbestrasse11,6330Cham,Switzerland Preface Solar energy is becoming a necessity not only for climate change issues but also foreconomicreasonsbecauseithasthecheapestenergyproductioncostnowadays. Thisbookgivesageneralandconcisepresentationofsolarenergyfromapractical engineeringperspective.Withoutcoveringdetailed,in-depthphysicsbutstillgiving a comprehensive, accessible, and intuitive introduction to the topic, this book focusesonpresentingprovenmethodsandtoolsforthedesign,implementation,and monitoring of solar energy systems, as well as associated auxiliary technologies. The book covers key aspects of solar energy, such as photovoltaic solar cells and systems,batterytechnologies,solarconcentrators,andhybridphotovoltaic/thermal systems.Keyapplicationareassuchashomes,buildings,solarfarms,streetlighting, vehicles, and pumping are discussed. The methods for connecting solar farms and other photovoltaic installations to power distribution systems are addressed in the contextofthesmartgridstechnologiesavailabletofacilitatesuchconnections.The feasibility study of solar projects is also considered and illustrated by a practical exampleconsideringthetechnical,financial,andenvironmentalaspects. The chapters in this book are self-contained and may be read in any order by advanced students,practicingengineers,andresearchersinterestedinsolarenergy applications, a multidisciplinary subject including physics, electrical engineering, thermalengineering,andpowerelectronics. Amiens,France AhmedRachid Izmir,Türkiye AytacGoren Portsmouth,UK VictorBecerra Portsmouth,UK JovanaRadulovic Portsmouth,UK SouravKhanna v Acknowledgment This work was carried out as part of the SOLARISE project of the Interreg 2 Seasprogramco-financedbytheEuropeanRegionalDevelopmentFundsub-grant contractNo.2S04-004. vii Contents 1 FundamentalsofSolarEnergy............................................. 1 2 PhotovoltaicCellsandSystems............................................. 17 3 BatteryTechnologies......................................................... 43 4 ConcentratingPhotovoltaics................................................ 69 5 SolarPVTSystems........................................................... 83 6 SmartGridsandSolarEnergy............................................. 105 7 ApplicationsofSolarEnergy ............................................... 135 8 FeasibilityAssessmentofSolarEnergyProjects ......................... 157 9 SolarThermalEnergySystems............................................. 177 Index............................................................................... 191 ix Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Solar Energy 1.1 IntroductiontoSolarEnergy Electromagnetic radiation emitted by the nearest star reaches the earth as solar radiation.Sunlightconsistsofvisibleandnearvisibleregions.TheVisibleregionis theregionwherethewavelengthisbetween0.39and0.74μm.Theinfraredregion hasawavelengthsmallerthan0.39μmandtheultra-violetregion’swavelengthis greaterthan0.74μm. Luminosityistheradiantpowermeasurethatisindependentfromthedistanceof thesourceandtheobserver.TheluminosityoftheSunis3.846×1026 [W/s][10]. Solarradiationreachestheearthasdirect,diffuseorreflectedradiation.Directsolar radiation is the sunlight that directly reaches the surface. Diffuse solar radiation is the sunlight scattering through atmosphere whereas reflected radiation is the sunlightthatreachesthesurfaceviareflectionsfrombuildingsorfromotherobjects. Thesumofthesethreetypesonaunitareaiscalledasglobalsolarradiation.Solar irradiationisthesolarenergyreceivedbya1m2 surface.Solarenergyisreflected, absorbedandscatteredbeforereachingtheearth(Fig.1.1). When solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed or scattered. Clouds, air molecules, aerosols, and water vapor are the reasons. Direct normal irradiance (DNI) is the solar radiation that reaches directly the earth’s surface. Diffuse horizontal irradiance (DHI) is the terrestrial irradiance received by a horizontal surface that has been scattered or diffused by the atmosphere. The totalamountofshortwaveterrestrialirradiancereceivedbyasurfacehorizontalto thegroundiscalledasglobalhorizontalirradiance(GHI). The value of solar radiation at mean earth-sun distance at the top of the atmosphereisreferredtoastheSolarConstantwhichis1367W/m2.Onasurface on earth in a clear day, at noon, the direct beam radiation can be approximately 1000W/m2.Location,season,timeofthedayandweatherconditionsarethemain factorsthataffecttheharvestingofsolarenergy[14,15,17]. ©TheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2023 1 A.Rachidetal.,SolarEnergyEngineeringandApplications,PowerSystems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-20830-0_1 2 1 FundamentalsofSolarEnergy Fig.1.1 Solarradiationonearthsurface Solar energy systems are the systems that use solar energy as a thermal source or generate electricity directly. Solar energy systems which use solar energy to generate electricity use the photovoltaic effect. Antoine-César and Alexandre- Edmond Becquerel have first observed the photovoltaic effect in year 1839. They noticed electrochemical effects produced by light in electrolytic solutions. In 1905, Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effect caused by photons [4]. In 1932, cadmium selenide and in 1954 silicon-based cells were discovered to have photovoltaic effects. For the systems use solar energy as a thermal source, once again the energy comes from the photons. This is because photon kinetic energyistransferredtotheobjectanditheatsuptheobject.TheStefan-Boltzmann law explains the relationship between an object’s temperature and the amount of radiationthatitemits. Theamount ofenergy thatcanbegenerated byphotovoltaic effectisrelatedto theamountofsolarradiationandhowlongitisreceived.Thus,themeasurements toanalyzetheenergycanbegeneratedbysolarenergysystemsarebasedonthese twoparameters. 1.2 MeasurementofSolarRadiation The earth orbits the sun and rotates around its own axis. The radius of the earth’s orbitaroundthesunchangesfrom147millionkilometersto152millionkilometers. ◦ TheaxisoftheEarthisinclinedwithrespecttoitsorbitalplaneatanangleof23.45 .