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Water Science and Technology Library Rajendra Singh Soil and Water Conservation Structures Design Water Science and Technology Library Volume 123 Editor-in-Chief V. P. Singh, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering & Zachry Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA Editorial Board R. Berndtsson, Lund University, Lund, Sweden L. N. Rodrigues, Embrapa Cerrados, Brasília, Brazil Arup Kumar Sarma, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India M. M. Sherif, Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, UAE University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates B. Sivakumar, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia Q. Zhang, Faculty of Geographical Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China The aim of the Water Science and Technology Library is to provide a forum for dissemination of the state-of-the-art of topics of current interest in the area of water science and technology. This is accomplished through publication of reference books and monographs, authored or edited. Occasionally also proceedings volumes are accepted for publication in the series. Water Science and Technology Library encompasses a wide range of topics dealing with science as well as socio-economic aspects of water, environment, and ecology. Both the water quantity and quality issues are relevant and are embraced by Water Science and Technology Library. The emphasis may be on either the scientific content, or techniques of solution, or both. There is increasing emphasis these days on processes and Water Science and Technology Library is committed to promoting this emphasis by publishing books emphasizing scientific discussions of physical, chemical, and/or biological aspects of water resources. Likewise, current or emerging solution techniques receive high priority. Interdisciplinary coverage is encouraged. Case studies contributing to our knowledge of water science and technology are also embraced by the series. Innovative ideas and novel techniques are of particular interest. Comments or suggestions for future volumes are welcomed. Vijay P. Singh, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering & Zachry Department of Civil and Environment Engineering, Texas A&M University, USA Email: [email protected] All contributions to an edited volume should undergo standard peer review to ensure high scientific quality, while monographs should also be reviewed by at least two experts in the field. Manuscripts that have undergone successful review should then be prepared according to the Publisher’s guidelines manuscripts: https://www.springer.com/gp/ authors-editors/book-authors-editors/book-manuscript-guidelines Rajendra Singh Soil and Water Conservation Structures Design Rajendra Singh Agricultural and Food Engineering Department Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur Kharagpur, India ISSN 0921-092X ISSN 1872-4663 (electronic) Water Science and Technology Library ISBN 978-981-19-8664-2 ISBN 978-981-19-8665-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8665-9 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Dedicated to My Late Parents My Wife Archana Foreword Soil and water are the fundamental components of the environmental continuum and hence of the ecological continuum. Their conservation is therefore vital which is accomplished by the employment of conservation measures. These measures can be either structural or non-structural or a combination thereof. Development and design of these measures depend on physiographic, hydrometeorological, and field conditions (soil, land use and land cover, and crops) as well as the availability of quality data. Complicating the design of these measures is climate change whose impact needs to be incorporated in the design. Soil and water conservation is a vast discipline combining related aspects of soil and crop sciences, forestry, hydrology, hydraulics, hydrometeorology, irrigation, drainage, geotechnical engineering, environmental engineering, structural engineering, and decision science. There is a multitude of books and technical reports on soil and water conservation in both the field of soil science and agricultural engineering. Most of the books, however, focus more on concepts, principles, theories, and methods, but much less on design of measures and their implementation in field, and on their effectiveness and methods of their improvements in field. One conse- quence, especially in developing countries, is that field engineers or soil conserva- tionists base design of these measures on methods which are somewhat outdated and which do not take into account modern methods of design and the impact of global warming and climate change, land use land cover changes, changes in soil and crop management, and environmental impact assessment. The book by Prof. Rajendra Singh is one of the few books that emphasise design of soil and water conservation structures and is very timely. Spanning 14 chapters it encompasses basic principles and procedures of soil and water conservation, mechanics of erosion, development of measures for the control of erosion, techniques for the measurement and modelling of soil loss, applications of remote sensing (RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to soil conservation, assessment of the impact of climate and land use land cover (LULC) changes on soil erosion, and design of soil and water conservation structures. The book will be useful for graduate students, college faculty, field engineers, and watershed managers. I applaud Prof. Singh for writing this book which has vii viii Foreword long been much needed. The book reflects his long experience in teaching, research, consultancy, and extension. Vijay P. Singh, Ph.D., D.Sc., P.E., P.H., Hon.D. WRE Academician (GFA) Distinguished Professor Regents Professor Caroline and William Lehrer Distinguished Chair in Water Engineering Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering Zachry Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Texas A&M University College Station, TX, USA Preface As an undergraduate student of Agricultural Engineering and a postgraduate student of Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, I found the design of soil and water conservation structures fascinating as it allowed me to apply engineering principles to the field conditions. However, I found the design process challenging as it required referring to different books and manuals to get the required information. Later on, while teaching Soil Conservation Structures Design at the Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, I collected adequate literature on the design concepts and processes of soil and water conservation structures. Subsequently, while offering the course entitled Soil and Water Conservation Engineering under National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL), funded by the Ministry of Education, Government of India, I reckoned it would be a good idea to extend the material with essential details, including the design examples, into a full-fledged textbook on Soil and Water Conservation Structures Design. I did so eventually, and while writing, I strived to elucidate design principles and procedures in a simple and unified way so that subject teachers, students, and practising engineers could access them effortlessly. Although soil and water have supported the development and sustenance of civil- isations by facilitating agricultural production in an enabling environment, these natural resources are facing degradation due to uncontrolled anthropogenic activ- ities. Consequently, about 52% of the world’s total productive land is subject to different degradation processes. Soil erosion has degraded about 45% of the total land area in India, 32% the USA, 16% in Africa, 31% in China, and 17% in Europe, with an estimated annual average soil erosion rate in the range of 2.87–30 t ha−1 yr−1. Globally, water erosion causes sediment flux of 28 Gt yr−1, while wind erosion impacts about 28% of the global land. Therefore, soil and water conservation is essential for maintaining or enhancing land productivity by preventing soil erosion, conserving water, and improving soil fertility. Various soil and water conservation measures, developed focusing on improved management of soil, water, and vegeta- tion, must be vigorously adopted to address global concerns like water scarcity and biodiversity conservation, and ensure sustainable agricultural development and rural livelihood generation. Soil and water conservation structures are often employed ix x Preface to tackle gully erosion, a global phenomenon recognised as the extreme stage of soil erosion. However, the successful design and execution of gully erosion control measures require the services of qualified engineers having sound knowledge of hydrology and soil science, besides a broad understanding of the soil–water–plant– atmosphere relationship. Soil and Water Conservation Structures Design, focusing on the engineering design of soil and water conservation structures, is intended for undergraduate and graduate students pursuing degrees in agricultural engineering and soil and water conservation engineering, practising engineers engaged in the soil and water conservation or watershed management programmes and environmental consultants. In addition, it will be helpful to those studying soil and water conservation as part of their agriculture, environmental science, soil science, watershed management, and civil engineering courses. Though several textbooks on soil and water conservation exist, most of these include the entire gamut of land and water management with numerous chapters dedicated to hydrology, irrigation engineering, drainage engineering, and ground- water. Consequently, soil and water conservation engineering coverage is diluted. In particular, the design aspects of the permanent gully control structures, which undergraduate and graduate students and practising engineers often find most challenging, are ignored. The foremost objective of the book is to present the design principles lucidly. Therefore, every theoretical concept is followed by a worked example for easy understanding of the students. In addition, a set of ten practice questions and ten multi-objective questions are included in each chapter. Faculty members using this textbook in their courses can approach the author for the solution to the practice questions if needed. The textbook contains 14 chapters. Following the introduction of soil and water conservation principles in Chap. 1, Chap. 2 describes the mechanics and types of water erosion. Chapter 3 presents various soil erosion modelling and measurement techniques for soil loss assessment. Chapters 4 and 5 are dedicated to designing terraces and bunds, two widely practised mechanical erosion control measures. The design of vegetated waterways, including their layout, construction and main- tenance, is presented in Chap. 6. Chapter 7 elaborates on the design principles used in designing temporary gully control structures and introduces the permanent structures’ hydrologic, hydraulic, and structural design principles. Chapters 8–10 present the comprehensive design of the drop spillway, drop-inlet spillway, and chute spillway. Chapter 11 describes the mechanics of wind erosion and introduces various empirical and process-based wind erosion models. Chapter 12 presents the design of two popular water storage and diversion structures, the earthen embankments, and the farm ponds. Chapters 13 and 14 highlight the recent advances in the field by introducing the applications of remote sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) in soil conservation and analysing the impacts of climate and land use land cover (LULC) changes on soil erosion. I hope this book will be a valuable reference for the faculty, students, and practising engineers and help promote the robust design of soil and water conservation structures