Silver-Halide Recording Materials: for Holography and Their Processing

456 Pages·1995·25.233 MB·English

by  Professor Dr. Hans I. Bjelkhagen (auth.)

Springer Series in Optical Sciences Volume 66
Editor: Theodor Tamir
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
Springer Series in Optical Sciences
Editorial Board: A. L. Schawlow A. E. Siegman T. Tamir
Managing Editor: H. K. V. Lotsch
42 Principles of Phase Conjugation 59 Photorefractlve Crystals
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and V. V. Shkunov By M. P. Petrov, S. 1. Stepanov,
and A. V. Khomenko
43 X-Ray Microscopy
Editors: G. Schmahl and D. Rudolph 60 Holographic Interferometry
In Experimental Mechanics
44 introduction to Laser Physics
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By K. Shimoda 2nd Edition
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45 Scanning Electron Microscopy
Physics of Image Formation and Microanalysis 61 Millimetre and Submllllmetre Wavelength
By L. Reimer Lasers A Handbook of cw Measurements
By N. G. Douglas
46 Holography and Deformation Analysis
By W. Schumann, J.-P. ZUrcher, and D. Cuche 62 Photoacoustlc and Photothermal Phenomena II
Editors: J. C. Murphy, 1. W. Maclachlan Spicer,
47 Tuna ble Solid State Lasers L. C. Aamodt, and B. S. H. Royce
Editors: P. Hammerling, A. B. Budgor,
63 Electron Energy Loss Spectrometers
and A. Pinto
The Technology of High Performance
48 Integrated Optics By H.lbach
Editors: H. P. Nolting and R. Ulrich
64 Handbook of NonUnear Optical Crystals
49 Laser Spectroscopy VII By V. G . Dmitriev, G. G. Gurzadyan,
Editors: T. W. Hansch and Y. R. Shen and D. N. Nikogosyan
50 Laser-Induced Dynamic Gratings 65 High-Power Dye Lasers
By H. J. Eichler, P. GUnter, and D. W. Pohl Editor: F. J. Duarte
51 Tunable Solid State Lasers for Remote Sensing 66 Silver Halide Recording Materials for Holography
Editors: R. L. Byer, E. K. Gustafson, and Their Processing
and R. Trebino By H. 1. Bjeikhagen 2nd Edition
52 Tunable Solid-State Lasers II 67 X-Ray Microscopy III
Editors: A. B. Budgor, L. Esterowitz, Editors: A. G. Michette, G. R. Morrison,
and L. G. DeShazer and C. J. Buckley
53 The COl Laser ByW. J. Witteman 68 Holographic Interferometry -Principles and
54 Lasers, Spectroscopy and New Ideas Methods.
A Tribute to Arthur L. Schawlow Editor: P. K. Rastogi
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55 Laser Spectroscopy vm Editor: D. Bicanic
Editors: W. Persson and S. Svanberg 70 Electron Holography
56 X-Ray Microscopy II By A. Tonomura
Editors: D. Sayre, M. Howells, J. Kirz, 71 Energy-Filtering Transmission
and H. Rarback Electron Microscopy
57 Single-Mode Fibers Fundamentals Editor: L. Reimer
By E.-G. Neumann
58 Photoacoustlc and Photothermal Phenomena
Editors: P. Hess and 1. Pelzl
Volumes 1-41 are listed at the end of the book
H. I. B jelkhagen
Silver-Halide
Recording Materials
for Holography
and Their Processing
Second Edition
With 64 Figures
, Springer
Professor Dr. HANS I. BJELKHAGEN
American Propylaea Corp., 555 S. Woodward, Suite 1109
Birmingham, MI 48009, USA
Editorial Board
ARTHURL. SCHAWLOW, Ph. D. Professor ANTHONY E. SIEGMAN, Ph. D.
Department of Physics, Stanford University Electrical Engineering
Stanford, CA 94305, USA E. L. Ginzton Laboratory, Stanford University
Stanford, CA 94305, USA
THEODOR TAMIR, Ph. D.
Polytechnic University
333 Jay Street, Brooklyn, NY 11201, USA
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Springer-Verlag, Tiergartenstrasse 17,0-69121 Heidelberg, Germany
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The time has come
New Lippmann said
To talk of many things:
Ofp lates and film
And HOEs
And holographic fringe
And that the image may just fade
And whether light has wings.
Teresa Bjelkhagen
Foreword
Holography is done primarily on silver-halide photographic materials. This
was true from the very beginning in 1947 and remains true today (except,
of course, for the mass-production embossing processes, but even these
start with a photographic master). Since 1962, the common emulsions used
for conventional photography have been abandoned in favor of specialized,
high-resolution emulsions that allow holography to realize its rather aston
ishing capabilities. Even more unconventional are the various chemical
processes for transforming the exposed emulsions into the finished holo
gram. Sometimes the usual photographic developers and fixers are used, but
more often the chemical processes are highly complicated and esoteric. The
aim is to produce holograms with low noise (i.e., low scatter) and with high
diffraction efficiency, so that the image will be as clear and bright as possi
ble. As a consequence of this research, the quality of holograms has
improved spectacularly over the past three decades.
This book deals with the photographic process as it applies to hologra
phy. It is the only book dedicated to this topic and is the most complete
compilation of this vast and important technology. Dr. Bjelkhagen has done
the holography community a worthy service by producing this work. And
his credentials are impeccable. He has worked for over two decades on
making holograms on silver-halide emulsions and has contributed signifi
cantly to the research results that he writes about. This book, made possible
by his considerable expertise, will be of great value to anyone seriously in
terested in the process of making high-quality holograms.
November, 1994 Emmett N. Leith
VII
Preface
This book is devoted first and foremost to silver-halide recording materials
for holography and their processing methods. Silver halides are commonly
used in the recording of holograms and are particularly popular in display
holography and scientific imaging where the demands placed on the re
cording material are extremely high. The fact is that lasers and the holo
graphic equipment of today are capable of producing holograms of the
highest possible quality; the limitations on the quality of holograms lie in
the recording material itself. For this very reason the author is convinced
that a systematic and exhaustive presentation of silver-halide materials -
their features and qualities, the various processing methods and techniques
that can be chosen from and applied in the holographic process, as well as
the relevant chemical formulas and recipes to be used - will be beneficial
to any reader interested in holography. It is the author's hope that the book
will be able to serve as a source to which the interested reader may refer
for advice on any point connected with the above, as well as that it will
provide the reader with a general understanding and an overall view of how
the materials work and of ways to achieve the best results from them.
This book is based on the author's long experience in the field, com
bined with careful studies of more than 800 scientific papers and publica
tions dealing with silver-halide materials and their processing techniques.
Among the references, the reader will find many publications from the
former Soviet Union, where the extensive research in this field has resulted
in many remarkable contributions to holography. As most of those contri
butions have been published only in the Russian language, the author would
like to pass on some of that experience in the field to the Western world.
Although this book is intended primarily for readers already somewhat
familiar with holography, it may also be useful to students interested in the
theoretical and practical aspects of holographic silver-halide recording mat
erials and their processing methods. For scientists working in the field of
holography the book is meant to serve as both a general reference book in
the area and a laboratory handbook. Finally and hopefully, for the experi
enced holographer it will provide the inspiration for further research and
aid him/her in creating holograms of unsurpassed quality and vividness yet
to be seen: the real world captured in a three-dimensional nutshell.
Evanston, IL
January 1993 H.l. Bjelkhagen
IX
Acknowledgements
In the course of writing this book I have received assistance and help from
various people who have directly or indirectly contributed to its final shape.
I would like to thank each and all of them. Particularly, thanks are due to
my two Swedish colleagues, Dr. Nils Abramson and Per Skande, both of
whom were involved in the early development of holographic imaging and
processing methods for silver-halide materials. In addition, I would like to
express gratitude to both Dr. Robert Sekulin, Rutherford Laboratory, and
Dr. Homaira Akbari, CERN, for their collaboration in some of the experi
ments concerning the influence of processing methods on the holographic
image resolution. I also wish to gratefully acknowledge many fruitful dis
cussions with Dr. Nicholas Phillips of Loughborough University as well as
his comments on an early version of the manuscript. Edward Wesly of the
Lake Forest College is gratefully acknowledged for helping me with some
experiments on pulsed-holography processing and for many valuable dis
cussions we had together. Likewise, I am grateful to Dr. Vladimir Markov
from Kiev· for his contribution to my understanding of ultrafine-grained
holographic materials, and many useful and stimulating discussions. Dr.
Ventseslav Sainov contributed with a detailed account of Bulgarian emul
sion making and processing methods and shared with me his experience
concerning various practical problems connected with holographic record
ing materials. At Northwestern University, Gale Hagan helped me with
preparing the tables and Nabeel Rasheed assisted me in producing the com
puter-generated illustrations. I am also indebted to Dr. Helmut Lotsch of
Springer-Verlag for his encouragement and support in writing this book.
Last but not least, I would like to express my deep gratitude to Teresa
Bjelkhagen who helped me enormously to improve both the quality of
English as well as that of the scientific meaning of the text. She made it
possible for me to take part of the work published in other languages, by
providing me with English translations of various publica'tions from Russian
and Spanish.
XI
Contents
1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
1.1 History.................................... 4
1.1.1 Before Holography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4
1.1.2 Early Holography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
1.2 Recording Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8
1.2.1 Silver-Halide Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8
1.2.2 Non-Silver Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8
a) Dichromated Gelatin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
b) Photopolymer Materials .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
c) Photoresist Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10
d) Thermoplastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
e) Ferroelectric Crystals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
f) Additional Materials ..................... 12
2. Silver-Halide Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
2.1 Theory of Sil ver-Halide Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
2.1.1 Photographic Silver-Halide Materials. . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
2.1.2 Photographic Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15
a) Exposure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15
b) The Characteristic Curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 16
c) Photographic Sensitivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18
2.1.3 Emulsion Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19
a) Granularity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19
b) Resolving Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20
c) Modulation Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20
d) Acutance ............................. 22
e) Halation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22
2.1.4 Holographic Emulsions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22
a) Demands on the Recording Emulsion. . . . . . . . . .. 23
b) Resolution of the Holographic Image. . . . . . . . . .. 25
Image resolution dependent on the recording
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25
Image resolution dependent on other factors than
material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
c) The Space-Bandwidth Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33
2.2 Emulsion Manufacturing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33
2.2.1 Conventional Photographic Emulsions. . . . . . . . . . . .. 33
a) Silver-Halide Emulsion Manufacturing. . . . . . . . .. 34
XIII