Short-Circuits in AC and DC Systems: ANSI, IEEE, and IEC Standards

746 Pages·2017·20.96 MB·English

by  J. C. Das

Power Systems Handbook
Short-Circuits in AC and DC
Systems
ANSI/IEEE and IEC Standards
Volume 1
Power Systems Handbook
Series Author
J.C. Das
Power System Studies, Inc., Snellville, Georgia, USA
Volume 1: Short-Circuits in AC and DC Systems:
ANSI, IEEE, and IEC Standards
Volume 2: Load Flow Optimization and Optimal Power Flow
Volume 3: Harmonic Generation Effects Propagation and Control
Volume 4: Power System Protective Relaying
Short-Circuits in AC and DC
Systems
ANSI, IEEE, and IEC Standards
Volume 1
J.C. Das
CRC Press
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Contents
Series Preface .................................................................................................................................xv
Preface to Volume 1: Short-Circuits in AC and DC Systems ...............................................xvii
Author ...........................................................................................................................................xix
1. Design and Analyses Concepts of Power Systems ..........................................................1
1.1 Static and Dynamic Systems .......................................................................................2
1.2 State Variables ................................................................................................................3
1.3 Linear and Nonlinear Systems....................................................................................5
1.3.1 Property of Decomposition ............................................................................6
1.4 Linearizing a Nonlinear System .................................................................................6
1.5 Time-Invariant Systems ...............................................................................................9
1.6 Lumped and Distributed Parameters ......................................................................11
1.7 Optimization ...............................................................................................................12
1.8 Planning and Design of Electrical Power Systems ................................................12
1.9 Electrical Standards and Codes ................................................................................14
1.10 Reliability Analyses ....................................................................................................15
1.10.1 Availability......................................................................................................16
1.10.1.1 Exponential Distribution...............................................................17
1.10.2 Data for Reliability Evaluations ...................................................................18
1.10.3 Methods of Evaluation ..................................................................................18
1.10.4 R eliability and Safety ....................................................................................22
1.11 Extent of System Modeling ........................................................................................25
1.11.1 S hort-Circuit Calculations ............................................................................26
1.11.2 L oad Flow Calculations ................................................................................28
1.11.3 H armonic Analysis ........................................................................................28
1.12 Power System Studies .................................................................................................28
1.13 Power System Studies Software ................................................................................29
1.14 System of Units ............................................................................................................30
Problems ..................................................................................................................................30
References ...............................................................................................................................32
2. Modern Electrical Power Systems .....................................................................................35
2.1 Classification ................................................................................................................35
2.1.1 Utility Companies in the USA .....................................................................36
2.1.2 North American Power System Interconnections .....................................37
2.2 Deregulation of Power Industry ...............................................................................38
2.2.1 Generation Company (GENCO) ..................................................................38
2.2.2 Transmission Company (TRANSCO) .........................................................39
2.2.3 Distribution Company (DISTCO) ................................................................39
2.3 The New Energy Platform .........................................................................................39
2.3.1 Sustainable, Renewable, and Green Energy ...............................................40
2.3.2 Green Energy ..................................................................................................41
2.3.3 Hydroelectric Plants ......................................................................................41
2.3.4 Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Plants ........................................................43
v
vi Contents
2.3.5 Nuclear Power ................................................................................................43
2.3.5.1 Breeder Reactors .............................................................................47
2.3.5.2 Nuclear Fusion ................................................................................47
2.3.5.3 Nuclear Power around the Globe ................................................48
2.3.5.4 Is Nuclear Power Green Energy? .................................................48
2.3.6 Geothermal Plants .........................................................................................49
2.3.7 Solar and Wind Energy .................................................................................50
2.3.8 Biofuels and Carbon-Neutral Fuels .............................................................50
2.3.9 Local Green Energy Systems ........................................................................51
2.3.10 Fuel Cells .........................................................................................................51
2.3.11 Reducing Caron Emissions ..........................................................................52
2.4 Large Power Stations of the World ...........................................................................53
2.5 Smart Grid ....................................................................................................................57
2.5.1 Legislative Measures .....................................................................................58
2.5.2 Technologies Driving Smart Grid ...............................................................58
2.6 Microgrids and Distributed Generation ..................................................................59
2.7 Energy Storage .............................................................................................................63
2.7.1 Flywheel Storage ............................................................................................64
2.7.2 Superconductivity ..........................................................................................67
2.7.2.1 Applications in Electrical Systems ...............................................68
2.8 Transmission Systems ................................................................................................68
2.9 Industrial Systems.......................................................................................................69
2.10 Distribution Systems ..................................................................................................71
2.10.1 The Radial System .........................................................................................72
2.10.2 The Parallel or Loop System .........................................................................73
2.10.3 Network or Grid System ...............................................................................73
2.10.4 Primary Distribution System .......................................................................75
2.11 Future Load Growth ...................................................................................................77
2.12 Underground versus OH Systems ............................................................................77
2.12.1 Spot Network ..................................................................................................78
2.13 HVDC Transmission ..................................................................................................80
2.13.1 HVDC Light ....................................................................................................80
2.13.2 HVDC Configurations and Operating Modes ..........................................80
Problems ..................................................................................................................................82
Bibliography ...........................................................................................................................82
IEEE Color Books ...................................................................................................................84
3. Wind and Solar Power Generation and Interconnections with Utility .....................85
3.1 Prospective of Wind Generation in the USA ..........................................................85
3.2 Characteristics of Wind Power Generation .............................................................87
3.2.1 Maximum Transfer Capability ....................................................................91
3.2.2 Power Reserves and Regulation ..................................................................92
3.2.3 Congestion Management ..............................................................................93
3.3 Wind Energy Conversion ...........................................................................................93
3.3.1 Drive Train ......................................................................................................94
3.3.2 Towers ..............................................................................................................96
3.3.3 Rotor Blades ....................................................................................................96
3.4 The Cube Law ..............................................................................................................97
3.5 Operation......................................................................................................................99
Contents vii
3.5.1 S peed Control ...............................................................................................101
3.5.2 Behavior under Faults and Low-Voltage
Ride Through................................................................................................102
3.6 Wind Generators .......................................................................................................103
3.6.1 Induction Generators ...................................................................................103
3.6.2 Direct Coupled Induction Generator ........................................................105
3.6.3 Induction Generator Connected to Grid through
Full Size Converter ......................................................................................105
3.6.4 Doubly Fed Induction Generator ...............................................................106
3.6.5 Synchronous Generators .............................................................................107
3.7 Reactive Power and Wind Turbine Controls .........................................................107
3.8 Power Electronics and Harmonics .........................................................................111
3.8.1 Power Electronics .........................................................................................111
3.8.2 Harmonics .....................................................................................................112
3.9 Computer Modeling .................................................................................................113
3.9.1 A Wind Turbine Controller ........................................................................113
3.10 Solar Power ................................................................................................................115
3.11 CSP Plants ..................................................................................................................116
3.11.1 Solar Energy Collectors ...............................................................................116
3.11.1.1 Parabolic Dish Concentrators .....................................................117
3.11.1.2 S olar Tower ....................................................................................118
3.11.2 Trackers .........................................................................................................118
3.11.2.1 P hotovoltaic Trackers ...................................................................119
3.12 Direct Conversion of Solar Energy through
PV Cells ......................................................................................................................120
3.12.1 C ells, Modules, Panels, and Systems .........................................................120
3.12.1.1 PV Module .....................................................................................120
3.12.1.2 PV Panel .........................................................................................121
3.12.1.3 PV Array ........................................................................................121
3.12.1.4 PV Array Subfield .........................................................................121
3.13 Classification of Solar Cells .....................................................................................121
3.14 Utility Connections of Distributed Resources ......................................................123
3.14.1 V oltage Control .............................................................................................123
3.14.2 G rounding.....................................................................................................123
3.14.3 S ynchronizing ..............................................................................................123
3.14.4 D istribution Secondary Spot
Networks .......................................................................................................124
3.14.5 I nadvertent Energization ............................................................................124
3.14.6 M etering ........................................................................................................124
3.14.7 I solation Device ............................................................................................124
3.14.8 EMI Interference ..........................................................................................124
3.14.9 Surge Withstand ..........................................................................................125
3.14.10 Paralleling Device ........................................................................................125
3.14.11 Area Faults ....................................................................................................125
3.14.12 Abnormal Frequencies ................................................................................125
3.14.13 Reconnection ................................................................................................125
3.14.14 Harmonics .....................................................................................................125
Problems ................................................................................................................................126
References .............................................................................................................................127
viii Contents
4. Short-Circuit Currents and Symmetrical Components ..............................................131
4.1 Nature of Short-Circuit Currents ............................................................................132
4.2 Symmetrical Components .......................................................................................135
4.3 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors .................................................................................138
4.4 Symmetrical Component Transformation .............................................................139
4.4.1 Similarity Transformation ..........................................................................139
4.4.2 Decoupling a Three-Phase Symmetrical System ....................................141
4.4.3 Decoupling a Three-Phase Unsymmetrical System ...............................145
4.4.4 Power Invariance in Symmetrical Component
Transformation .............................................................................................146
4.5 Clarke Component Transformation .......................................................................146
4.6 Characteristics of Symmetrical Components ........................................................150
4.7 Sequence Impedance of Network Components ...................................................153
4.7.1 Construction of Sequence Networks ........................................................153
4.7.2 Transformers .................................................................................................155
4.7.2.1 Delta–Wye or Wye–Delta Transformer .....................................155
4.7.2.2 Wye–Wye Transformer ................................................................157
4.7.2.3 Delta–Delta Transformer .............................................................158
4.7.2.4 Zigzag Transformer .....................................................................158
4.7.2.5 Three-Winding Transformers .....................................................159
4.7.3 Static Load .....................................................................................................163
4.7.4 Synchronous Machines ...............................................................................163
4.8 Computer Models of Sequence Networks .............................................................168
Problems ................................................................................................................................170
Bibliography .........................................................................................................................171
5. Unsymmetrical Fault Calculations .................................................................................173
5.1 Line-to-Ground Fault ...............................................................................................173
5.2 Line-to-Line Fault ......................................................................................................175
5.3 Double Line-to-Ground Fault ..................................................................................177
5.4 Three-Phase Fault .....................................................................................................179
5.5 Phase Shift in Three-Phase
Transformers ..............................................................................................................180
5.5.1 Transformer Connections ...........................................................................180
5.5.2 Phase Shifts in Winding Connections ......................................................180
5.5.3 Phase Shift for Negative Sequence
Components ..................................................................................................183
5.6 Unsymmetrical Fault Calculations .........................................................................186
5.7 System Grounding ...................................................................................................193
5.7.1 Solidly Grounded Systems .........................................................................195
5.7.2 Resistance Grounding .................................................................................196
5.7.2.1 High-Resistance Grounded Systems .........................................197
5.7.2.2 Coefficient of Grounding ............................................................203
5.8 Open Conductor Faults ............................................................................................204
5.8.1 Two-Conductor Open Fault ........................................................................204
5.8.2 One-Conductor Open ..................................................................................204
Problems ................................................................................................................................209
Bibliography .........................................................................................................................211
References .............................................................................................................................211
Contents ix
6. Matrix Methods for Network Solutions ........................................................................213
6.1 Network Models ........................................................................................................213
6.2 Bus Admittance Matrix ............................................................................................214
6.3 Bus Impedance Matrix .............................................................................................219
6.3.1 B us Impedance Matrix from Open-Circuit Testing ................................220
6.4 Loop Admittance and Impedance Matrices .........................................................221
6.4.1 S election of Loop Equations .......................................................................223
6.5 Graph Theory .............................................................................................................223
6.6 Bus Admittance and Impedance Matrices by Graph
Approach ....................................................................................................................226
6.6.1 Primitive Network .......................................................................................226
6.6.2 Incidence Matrix from Graph Concepts ...................................................228
6.6.3 Node Elimination in Y-Matrix ...................................................................232
6.7 Algorithms for Construction of Bus Impedance Matrix .....................................233
6.7.1 Adding a Tree Branch to an Existing Node .............................................234
6.7.2 Adding a Link ..............................................................................................236
6.7.3 Removal of an Uncoupled Branch .............................................................238
6.7.4 Changing Impedance of an Uncoupled Branch ......................................238
6.7.5 Removal of a Coupled Branch ....................................................................238
6.8 Short-Circuit Calculations with Bus Impedance Matrix .....................................246
6.8.1 Line-to-Ground Fault ..................................................................................246
6.8.2 Line-to-Line Fault ........................................................................................246
6.8.3 Double Line-to-Ground Fault ....................................................................247
6.9 Solution of Large Network Equations ....................................................................256
Problems ................................................................................................................................257
Bibliography .........................................................................................................................258
7. Current Interruptions in AC Networks .........................................................................259
7.1 Rheostatic Breaker ....................................................................................................259
7.2 AC Arc Interruption .................................................................................................261
7.2.1 Arc Interruption Theories...........................................................................261
7.2.1.1 Cassie’s Theory .............................................................................261
7.2.1.2 Mayr’s Theory ...............................................................................262
7.2.1.3 Cassie-Mayr Theory .....................................................................262
7.3 Current-Zero Breaker ................................................................................................263
7.4 Transient Recovery Voltage .....................................................................................264
7.4.1 First Pole to Clear Factor .............................................................................266
7.5 The Terminal Fault ....................................................................................................269
7.5.1 Four-Parameter Method..............................................................................269
7.5.2 Two-Parameter Representation ..................................................................270
7.6 The Short-Line Fault .................................................................................................271
7.7 Interruption of Low Inductive Currents ................................................................273
7.7.1 Virtual Current Chopping ..........................................................................275
7.8 Interruption of Capacitance Currents ....................................................................276
7.9 TRV in Capacitive and Inductive Circuits .............................................................278
7.10 Prestrikes in Circuit Breakers .................................................................................279
7.11 Overvoltages on Energizing HV Lines ..................................................................280
7.11.1 Overvoltage Control ....................................................................................282
7.11.2 Synchronous Operation ..............................................................................283