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SECURITY ISSUES FOR WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS SECURITY ISSUES FOR WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS Parag Verma, Ankur Dumka, Anuj Bhardwaj, Navneet Kaur, Alaknanda Ashok, Anil Kumar Bisht, and Raksh Pal Singh Gangwar First Edition published 2022 by CRC Press 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 and by CRC Press 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN © 2022 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please contact [email protected] Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. ISBN: 978-1-032-18904-8 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-19085-3 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-25760-8 (ebk) DOI: 10.1201/9781003257608 Typeset in Times by MPS Limited, Dehradun Contents 1 Introduction to Wireless Sensor Networks 1 Introduction 1 Issues and Challenges 2 Architecture for WSNs 3 Types of Sensors 4 Components of WSNs 5 Types of Wireless Sensor Networks 6 Applications of WSNs 7 Protocols in WSNs 7 SPINS: Security Protocols for Sensor Networks 7 LEAP: Localized Encryption and Authentication Protocol 9 Gradient-Based Routing (GBR) 11 Active Query Forwarding in Sensor Network (ACQUIRE) 11 Probabilistic Key Distribution Schemes 11 Deterministic Key Distribution Schemes 12 References 14 2 Security in Wireless Sensor Networks – Background 15 Introduction 15 Constraints in Sensor Networks 17 Unreliable Communication 17 Node Constraints 17 Battery Power/Energy 18 Recharge Ability 18 Sleep Patterns 19 Transmission Range 19 Memory Limitations 19 Unattended Operations 20 Network Constraints 20 Ad Hoc Networking 20 Limited Preconfiguration 20 Data Rate/Packet Size 20 Channel Error Rate 21 Intermittent Connectivity 21 Unreliable Communications 21 Higher Latency in Communication 21 v vi Contents Frequent Routing Changes 21 Unknown Recipients 22 Physical Limitation 22 Characteristics of Sensor Networks 22 Power Efficiency 22 Scalability 23 Responsiveness 23 Reliability 23 Mobility 23 Compact Size 23 Physical Security 24 Memory Space 24 Bandwidth 24 Security Goals for Sensor Networks 24 Confidentiality 25 Integrity 26 Authentication 26 Data Freshness 27 Availability 27 Self-Organization 28 Secure Localization 28 Time Synchronization 28 Security Classes 29 Attacks on Sensor Networks 29 Passive Information Gathering 30 Attacks Against Privacy 30 Monitor and Eavesdropping 31 Traffic Analysis 31 Camouflage Adversaries 31 Active Attacks 32 Routing Attacks 32 Node Subversion 33 Node Malfunction 33 Node Outage 33 Physical Attacks 34 False Node 34 Node Replication Attacks 34 Layering-Based Security Approach 34 Physical Layer 35 Data Link layer 36 Network Layer 36 Transport Layer 37 Application layer 37 Conclusion 38 References 38 Contents vii 3 QoS as a Means of Providing WSN Security 41 Introduction 41 Quality of Services in Wireless Sensor Networks 43 QoS Concept and Security Effect 44 QoS Challenges in Sensor Networks 45 QoS Metrics in WSN Layers 47 Application-Specific QoS Parameters 47 Network-Specific QoS Parameters 48 Related Studies 49 Reliability, Availability and Serviceability (RAS) 53 Calculating Probability of Node Availability in a WSN 56 Experiments and Evaluations 57 Conclusion 60 References 61 4 The Security Framework for Wireless Sensor Networks 65 Introduction 65 Security Requirements in WSNS 66 Wireless Sensor Networks’ Security Framework 68 The Secure Triple-Key Management Scheme 68 Base Station to Node Key Calculation 70 Nodes to Cluster Leader Key Calculation 70 Cluster Leader to Next Hop Cluster Leader Key Calculation 71 Cluster Leader to Base Station Key Calculation 72 Analysis of Secure Triple-Key Management Scheme 72 Secure Routing 74 Node Algorithm 74 Secure Localization 77 Determining the Node Location 77 Securing the Node Location: An Analysis 78 Malicious Node Detection Mechanism 79 Threat Model 81 Trust Model 82 Trust Evaluation Model 83 Trust Evaluation of the Sensor Node 83 Trust Evaluation of the Relay Node 88 Data Trust 88 Trust List 88 Conclusion 89 References 90 5 Secure Key Management Scheme (SKMS) 93 Introduction 93 Key Management in a Wireless Sensor Network 94 viii Contents Key Management Schemes 95 Pre-Distribution Key Management Schemes 97 Key Pool-Based Pre-Distribution Key Management Schemes 97 Pair-Wise Key-Based Pre-Distribution Key Management Schemes 98 Key Space-Based Pre-Distribution Key Management Schemes 99 Group-Based Probabilistic Pre-Distribution Key Management Schemes 99 Grid-Based Pre-Distribution Key Management Schemes 102 Deployment Knowledge-Based Pre-Distribution Key Management Schemes 103 Polynomial-Based Probabilistic Pre-Distribution Key Management Schemes 104 Matrix-Based Pre-Distribution Key Management Schemes 104 Tree-Based Pre-Distribution Key Management Schemes 105 Combinatorial Design-Based Pre-Distribution Key Management Schemes 106 Hypercube-Based Pre-Distribution Key Management Schemes 106 ID-Based Pre-Distribution Key Management Schemes 107 Energy-Aware Pre-Distribution Key Management Schemes 107 Location-Based Pre-Distribution Key Management Schemes 109 Cluster-Based Pre-Distribution Key Management Schemes 110 Other Pre-Distribution Key Management Schemes 111 In Situ Key Management Schemes 115 Challenges Faced by Key Management in a WSN 116 Evaluation Metrics for KMS in a WSN 116 Security Metrics 117 Efficiency Metric 117 Flexibility Metric 117 Proposed Advanced EG Scheme for WSN Security 118 Key Pre-Distribution Phase 118 Shared Key Discovery Phase 119 Path Key Establishment Phase 119 Analysis and Simulation Result 119 Connectivity 120 Safety Analysis: Resilience against Attack Capture Nodes 121 Conclusion 122 References 122 6 Secure Routing Algorithms (SRAs) in Sensor Networks 131 Introduction 131 Challenges of Design Tasks of Routing Protocol for a WSN 132 Classification of Routing Protocols in a WSN 133 Attribute-Based or Data-Centric Routing Protocols 133 Contents ix Flooding and Gossiping 133 SPIN 135 Directed Diffusion 135 Rumor Routing 138 Gradient-Based Routing 139 Hierarchical-Based Routing (Clustering) or Node-Centric Routing Protocol 140 LEACH 141 PEGASIS and Hierarchical-PEGASIS 142 TEEN and APTEEN 143 Energy-Aware Cluster-Based Routing Algorithm 146 Location-Based Routing (Geographic Protocol) 149 MECN and SMECN 149 GEAR (Geographic and Energy Aware Routing) 150 GAF and HGAF 150 Fermat Point-Based Energy-Efficient Geocast Routing Protocol 152 Multi-Path Routing Protocol 152 N-to-1 Multi-Path Routing Protocol 153 Multi-Path Multi-Speed Protocol (MMSPEED) 154 Braided Multi-Path Routing Protocol 154 Energy-Aware Routing 155 Comparison of Routing Protocols 156 Routing Attacks in Wireless Sensor Networks 156 Sybil Attack 158 Black Hole Attack 158 Denial of Service Attack 159 Wormhole Attack 159 Hello Flood Attack 159 Grey Hole Attack 160 Conclusion 160 References 166 7 Secure Localization Technique (SLT) 169 Introduction 169 Operational Challenges in WSNs 170 Secure Localization Process 171 Classification of Localization Techniques 174 Direct Approaches 175 Indirect Approaches 175 Range-Based Localization 175 Range-Free Localization 179 Attack Model 181 Elementary Attacks 182